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COMPLETE 


GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

ALEX  EVERETT  FRYE 

AUTHOR  OF  “CHILD  AND  NATURE,”  “BROOKS  AND  BROOK  BASINS,” 
“ PRIMARY  GEOGRAPHY,"  ETC. 


BOSTON,  U.S.A.,  AND  LONDON 

GINN  & COMPANY,  PUBUSHERS 

1895 


Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall 


Copyright,  1895  • 

By  ALEX  EVERETT  FRYE 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


W8C.- 

PSYCH, 

L1BRARY 


Q/a? 

F&9 

EDUO- 

PSYCH. 

LIBRAW 


P R E F A C E. 


Commerce.  A work  on  geography  that  seeks  to  lay  a broad  basis  for  the  study  of 
nations  must  throw  a strong  search-light  upon  their  commercial  relations. 

Commerce  and  the  related  industries  take  a leading  place  in  this  book, — those  of  our 
own  country  being  illustrated  by  twenty-two  colored  maps  prepared  expressly  for  this  work. 

The  intelligent  study  of  a country’s  natural  resources  must  be  based  on  knowledge  of 
its  physical  features.  For  this  reason  the  surface-forms  and  the  climate  of  the  various  parts  of 
the  world  receive  full  treatment  in  the  text,  the  maps  and  the  pictures.  The  natural  regions 

of  the  United  States  are  made  to  serve  as  a basis  for  the  comparative  study  of  otlier  lands. 

Order  of  Lessons.  Though  most  teachers  using  this  book  will  doubtless  present  the  lessons 
in  the  order  in  which  they  appear,  yet  those  who  wish  to  complete  the  study  of  the  United 

States  in  detail,  before  showing  the  broader  relations  of  our  country  to  otlier  lands,  can  readily 

do  so.  The  work  is  so  arranged  that  pupils  can  go  directly  from  the  early  lessons  on  the 
physical  features  and  resources  of  our  country  ( pages  30  to  52)  to  the  study  of  its  people,  its 
government  and  its  industries  ( pages  123  et  seq.). 

Sizes  of  Type.  The  subject-matter  which  needs  the  most  careful  study  is  in  large  type. 
The  explanatory  and  descriptive  matter  in  small  type  does  not  call  for  close  study,  but  may 
be  used  for  supplementary  reading.  Teachers  who  wish  to  sh orten  the  course  in  geography  can 
easily  do  so  by  laying  little  stress  on  the  notes  in  small  type. 

Illustrations.  Nearly  all  the  pictures  in  this  book  were  engraved  directly  from  photo- 
graplis.  To  the  selection  of  subjects  for  the  pliotographs,  the  author  has  given  fully  as  much 
time  and  care  as  to  the  text  itself.  The  aim  has  been  to  present  characteristic  forms  that  are 
educative.  Many  of  the  views  are  from  the  Gardner  collection  in  Harvard  University. 

Spelling  of  Geographic  Names.  This  book  follows  the  rulings  of  the  United  States  Board 
on  Geographic  Names , — the  highest  authority  in  our  country. 


192 


IV 


PREFACE. 


Study  and  Reference  Maps.  All  teachers  of  geography  liave  felt  the  need  of  simple  study 
maps  and  full  reference  maps.  No  single  map  can  serve  both  purposes.  If  it  is  simple  enough 
for  study,  it  is  of  little  value  for  reference.  For  tliis  reason,  two  series  of  maps  are  used  in 
tliis  book,  — the  one  containing  such  details  as  are  needed  in  connection  with  the  text ; the 
other  being  the  most  complete  series  of  reference  maps  ever  placed  in  any  text-book.  Among 
the  latter,  in  the  supplement,  are  several  historical  maps  showing  geograpliical  discoveries,  Greece 
in  the  time  of  Pericles,  Italy  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  Palestine  in  one  of  the  most  important 
periods  of  Biblical  liistory. 

Teachers’  Manual.  The  suggestions  in  the  Teachers ’ Manual  are  the  outgrowth  of 
experience  in  the  class-room. 

Acknowledgments,  William  Morris  Davis,  Professor  of  Physical  Geography  in  Harvard 
University,  has  given  very  valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  tliis  work.  The  treatment 
of  the  atmosphere  and  the  elementary  land-fonns  is  based  on  manuscripts  of  Professor  Davis. 
He  has  also  given  many  broad  criticisms  on  other  parts  of  the  work. 

The  author  takes  pleasure  in  expressing  his  gratitude  to  Mr.  Justin  II.  Smith,  of 
Boston;  Mr.  Cyrus  C.  Adams,  of  New  York;  and  Mr.  Frank  F.  Murdock,  of  Bridgewater,  Mass., 
for  many  helpful  criticisms;  — also,  to  Mr.  J.  F.  Ricliardson,  of  Boston,  for  the  care  wliich  he 
has  bestowed  upon  the  wood-engravings. 

The  relief  maps  were  modeled  under  the  direction  of  the  author,  by  Miss  Gertrude 
Beatrice  Wright,  of  the  Normal  Art  School,  Boston.  The  industrial  maps  were  drawn  by 
Mr.  Henry  Gannett,  Chief  Topographer  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 


Boston,  May,  1895. 


ALEX  E.  FRYE. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


THE  EARTH. 

Introduction 

Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth 

The  Land  and  the  Sea  .... 

Directions  ....... 

Directions  on  the  Earth  .... 

The  World  Ridge  or  Primary  Highland  . 

CONTINENTS  OR  GRAND  DlVISIONS 

The  Oceans  ....... 

The  Waste  of  the  Land  .... 

Rainfall  ....... 

SPRINGS  AND  STREAMS  .... 

Land  Waste  on  the  Way  to  the  Sea 
Work  of  the  Winds  ..... 

Snow  and  Ice  ....... 

Rivers  and  River  Systems 

River  Basins  and  Divides  . . . . 

Young  and  Old  Lands  .... 

Flood  Plains  and  Deltas  .... 

Coastal  Plains  and  Lake  Plains  . 
Mountains  ....... 

VOLCANOES  ....... 

Waves  ........ 

Shore  Fosms  ...... 

Belts  of  Heat  ...... 

Changes  of  Season  ..... 

The  Zones  of  Light  ..... 

Seasons  of  the  Heat  Belts 

Latitude  and  Longitude  .... 

Winds  and  Rainfall  .... 

Winds  and  Rains  of  Winter  and  Summer 
Ocean  Currents  ...... 

The  Moon  and  the  Tides  .... 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

North  America 

The  Rocky  Mountains 

The  Sierra  Nevada 

The  Cascade  Range 


PAGK 

The  Great  Basin 33 

The  Colorado  Plateaus 37 

The  Columbia  Plateau . 38 

The  Coast  Range  and  Yalleys  .....  38 

The  Yukon  Region 39 

Highland  of  Mexico 40 

Central  America 41 

The  Appalachian  Highland  ......  41 

Old  Appalachian  Range  and  Piedmont  Belt  . . 42 

The  Great  Yalley  and  Alleghany  Ridges  . . 43 

The  Alleghany  Plateau  . 44 

The  Laurentian  Highland 45 

The  St.  Lawrence  Basin 45 

The  Western  Plains 47 

The  Prairies 48 

The  Northern  Plain 49 

Gulf  Coastal  Plain  . » 50 

Atlantic  Coastal  Plain  . . . . . . 51 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


South  America  53 

The  Southern  Andes 56 

The  Middle  Andes 56 

The  Northern  Andes  . 57 

The  Highland  of  Brazil 58 

The  Guiana  Highland 59 

The  Selvas 59 

The  Gran  Chaco  and  the  Pampas  ....  60 

The  Llanos 61 


ASIA. 


Asia 63 

The  Altai  Highland 64 

Central  Basin  Region  .64 

The  Highland  of  Tibet 65 

Highlands  of  Southwest  Asia 66 

The  Arctic  and  Caspian  Slopes 67 

The  Pacific  Slope 69 


PAOE 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

11 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

17 

17 

18 

18 

19 

20 

22 

22 

24 

25 

26 

27 

30 

32 

33 


VI 


TAKLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


India  ........ 

Asiatic  Islands 

EUROPE. 

Europe  ........ 

Region  oe  the  Alps  ..... 

The  Spanish  Peninsula 

The  Po  and  the  Apennines 

The  Balkan  Peninsula  . . . . . 

The  Plain  of  Hungary  .... 

The  Scandinavian  Peninsula  . . . . 

The  British  Isles  ...... 

Low  Europe,  — Western  Part 
Low  Europe,  — Eastern  Part 

AFRICA. 

Africa  ........ 

Egypt  and  the  Nile 

Northern  Africa  and  the  Sahara  Desert  . 

Sudan  . 

The  Kongo  Basin  ...... 

Southern  Africa  ...... 

AUSTRALIA. 

Australia  ........ 

New  Zealand,  Papua  and  other  Islands  . 

RACES  OF  MEN. 

Homes  of  the  Races  . . . . . 

The  Negro  or  Black  Race  .... 

The  American  or  Red  Race  . . . . 

The  Malay  or  Brown  Race 

The  Mongolian  or  Yellow  Race  . 

The  Caucasian  or  White  Race  . 

Religions  ........ 

Governments  ....... 

Review  of  the  Races  . ...  . 

PLANTS. 

Where  Plants  Grow  ..... 
Soil,  Water  and  Heat  . _ . 

Plants  of  the  Hot  Belt  .... 
Plants  of  the  Warm  Belts  . . . . 

Plants  of  the  Cool  Belts  .... 
Plants  of  the  Northern  Cold  Belt 


PAGfi 

ANIMALS. 


Animals,  — Their  Habits  and  Uses 

. 

. 111 

Animals  and  their  Homes  . 

111 

South  American  Realm  . 

• 

. 113 

Northern  Realm  ..... 

. 

114 

African  Realm  .... 

• 

. 116 

Oriental  Realm  ..... 

. 

117 

Australian  Realm  .... 

. 118 

Other  Products  of  the  Sea 

118 

COMMERCE. 

Domestic  and  Foreign  Commerce 119 


Highways  of  Trade,  — Water  Routes  . . . 119 

Railroads  ..........  121 

Aids  to  Commerce  121 

Time  Belts  and  International  Date  Line  . . .122 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Distribution  of  People  ......  123 

Government  .........  124 

Climate,  — Temperature  ......  127 

Climate, — Winds  and  Rainfall 129 

Cotton 130 

Wheat  ..........  131 

Indian  Corn 131 

Oats,  Barley  and  Rye 132 

Tobacco 132 

Forests  ..........  133 

Fruits  ..........  134 

Horses,  Mules  and  Hogs 134 

Cattle  and  Dairy  Products 135 

Sheep 135 

Fisheries  136 

Coal 137 

Iron  ..........  138 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas  ......  139 

Gold  and  Silver 140 

COPPER  AND  OTHER  METALS  ......  141 

Building  Stone 141 

New  England  States 142 

Middle  Atlantic  States 144 

Southern  States,  — Eastern  Section  ....  146 

Southern  Group, — Western  Section  ....  148 

Central  States,  — Eastern  Section  ....  150 

Central  States, — Western  Section  ....  153 


PAGE 

70 

72 

75 

76 

77 

78 

80 

80 

81 

82 

84 

86 

87 

89 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

97 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

105 

106 

107 

107 

108 

109 

110 

111 


TABLB  OF 

CONTENTS. 

vii 

South  western  Group  

PAGE 

. 154 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

PAGE 

Northwestern  Group 

156 

Countries  of 

South  America  . . . . 

• 

. 168 

CANADA,  MEXICO,  WEST  INDIES. 

Countries  of 

ASIA. 

Asia 

170 

Canada  and  Newfoundland  . . . . 

. 158 

Mexico,  Central  America,  West  Indies 

159 

AFRICA. 

Countries  of 

Africa 

. 

. 172 

EUROPE. 

• 

The  British  Isles  

. 162 

AUSTRALIA. 

Countries  of  Low'  Europe, — Western  Part 

164 

Colonies  OF 

Australia  .... 

• . 

174 

Mediterranean  Countries  ..... 

. 166 

Other  Countries  of  Europe  .... 

166 

SUPPLEMENT. 

■ 


. 


POLAR  SCENE 


. 

LAPP  AND / 
SCIND  ElftjÆ 


Introduction 


See  Teachers ’ Manual  of  Methods  in  Geography. 


y . ' HIPPOPOTAl^sl 


MP-A^ese 

V 


v 


This  book  describes  the  earth  as  our  home. 

We  ought  to  know  a great  deal  about  the  earth,  because 
we  live  on  it  and  use  many  of  its  products. 

The  earth  supplies  us  with  food,  clothing  and  all  other 
useful  things.  Do  you  not  wish  to  know  where  wheat 
and  corn  grow  ? — where  grassy  plains  are  covered  with 
cattle,  horses  and  sheep  ? — where  fields  are  white  with 
cotton  or  blue  with  flax  ? — where  trees  are  cut  down, 
floated  to  the  mills  and  sawed  into  lumber  ? — where  coal, 
iron  ore  and  granite  are  taken  out  of  the  earth  ? 

All  these  products,  and  many  more,  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States,  our  own  country,  but 
some  of  the  things  which  we  use  are  raised  by  people  fn 
other  lands.  From  this  book  we  are  to  learn  what  kind 
of  country  those  people  live  in,  how  they  dress,  what 
work  they  do,  what  they  buy  of  us  and  what  they  seil  to  us. 

We  shall  also  learn  why  the  same  kinds  of  products  are  not  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
earth.  Our  study  will  lead  us  to  the  cold  land  of  the  Lapps,  where  the  sun  shines  low  in 
the  sky  for  several  weeks  each  summer  without  setting.  In  that  region,  the  warm  sea- 
son  is  too  short  to  ripen  much  grain,  but  the  flesh,  milk  and  skins  of  reindeer  supply  food 
and  clothing. 

In  other  cold  parts  of  the  earth,  there  are  vast  fields  of  ice  and  snow,  upon  which 
Eskimos  hunt  the  seal  or  the  polar  bear.  How  different  is  their  life  from  ours ! They 

see  no  grain  ripening  in  fields,  no  cattle  grazing  in  pastures,  no  fruit  hanging  on  trees. 

This  book  describes  wide  regions  of  shifting  sand,  where  no  rain  falls  and  no  plants 
grow,  except  near  a few  springs.  There  the  people  travel  mostly  on  the  backs  of  camels. 

Do  you  know  how  tea  leaves  are  dried  and  how  silk  is  woven  into  fine  cloth  ? You  will  learn  how,  when  you  read 
about  the  yellow  people  in  Japan  and  China. 

There  are  warm  lands  where  coffee  berries  and  many  kinds  of  spices  grow.  Do  you  not  wish  to  learn  about  the 
people  who  send  us  coffee,  cloves  and  nutmegs  ? Every  day  as  we  study  this  book  and  look  at  its  pictures,  we 

shall  learn  something  about  the  earth,  — its  forms  of  land  and  water,  its  plants,  its  animals  or  its  people. 


Geography  treats  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man. 


2 


FORM  AND  SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


1.  Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth.1 

The  earth  is  a great  ball  of  land  and  water,  surrounded 
by  a shell  of  air. 

We  see  so  small  a part  of  the  earth  at  a time  that  it 


earth  is  about  25,000  miles.  Many  millions  of  people  live 
on  the  earth,  and  yet  a large  part  of  the  land  is  not  used. 

If  a train  of  cars  were  to  travel  day  and  night  at  the  rate  of 
thirty  miles  an  hour,  how  long  would  it  take  to  go  25,000  miles  ? 


America. 

does  not  look  like  a ball,  but  there  are  many  proofs  that 
the  earth  is  round.  Here  are  a few  of  them  : 

1.  Many  persons  have  gone  around  the  earth. 

2.  As  ships  sail  out  to  sea,  their  hulls  are  often  lost  to 
sight  while  their  sails  are  clearly  seen. 

3.  When  travelers  go  day  after  day  towards  the  north 
or  the  south,  new  stars  rise  over  the 

horizon  before  them,  while  the  stars 
behind  sink  beneath  the  horizon. 

4.  Sometimes  the  earth  moves  between 
the  sun  and  the  moon  and  casts  a shadow 
on  the  moon.  The  edge  of  this  shadow 
always  looks  like  part  of  a circle. 

Coral— J. 

The  sun  and  the  moon  are  round,  like  the 
earth.  The  moon  is  smaller  than  the  earth,  but  the  sun  is  many 
times  larger. 

The  shadow  of  the  earth  on  the  moon  is  called  an  eclipse  of  the 
moon.  There  may  also  be  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  when  the  moon  is 
between  the  earth  and  the  sun. 

The  great  body  of  salt  water  which  surrounds  the  land 

is  called  the  sea.  Various 
parts  of  the  sea  are  known 
as  oceans.  The  oceans  lie 
in  broad  hollows  on  the 
earth. 

The  two  maps  above  show 
the  land  and  the  water  on 
both  sides  of  the  earth. 

Sea-Urohln— j. 

The  earth  is  so  large 
that  the  distance  from  side  to  side,  through  the  center, 
is  nearly  8000  miles.  The  greatest  distance  around  the 

1 For  pronunciation  of  difficult  words,  see  the  Vocabulary  in  the  Supplement. 


The  Old  World. 


The  greater  part  of 
the  earth  is  a mass  of 
rock.  On  the  land  most 
of  the  rock  is  covered 
with  soil.  Fine  mud,  or 
ooze,  covers  the  rock  un- 
der the  sea. 

Many  parts  of  the 
land  do  not  rise  very 
high  above  the  sea,  but 
other  parts  are  lofty  and 
rugged.  Some  moun- 
tains  rise  higher  than 
most  of  the  clouds  which 
we  see,  — even  four  or  five  miles  into  the  air. 

Most  parts  of  the  sea  near  the  land  are  shallow. 
Far  from  the  shores  the  sea  is  in  many  places  two 
miles  deep,  and  in  some  places  the  bottom  is  four  or  five 
miles  below  the  surface. 

The  land  and  the  surface  of  the  sea  have  light  by  day 
and  darkness  by  night. 

They  have  also  warm  and 
cold  seasons.  No  sunshine 
reaches  the  deep  parts  of 
the  sea.  The  deep  water 
is  always  cold  and  dark. 

The  land  has  many  val- 
leys  and  mountains,  but  a 
large  part  of  the  sea-bottom 

is  a great  smooth  plain.  Deep-sea  sPiruia-}. 

The  wind  blows  sand 

and  dust  over  the  land  and  also  makes  waves  on  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  but  the  deep  sea  is 

»*  very  still.  Part  of  the  rain  falling  on 
the  land  feeds  brooks  and  rivers  which 
carry  or  ivash  loose  soil  down  the  slopes 
and  help  to  wear  valleys  in  the  land. 
Thus  the  form  of  the  land  is  slowly 
changed. 

Nearly  all  the  soil  which  is  washed 
into  the  sea  settles  in  the  shallow  water 
near  the  shores.  The  smooth  bottom  of 
the  deep  sea  hardly  changes  at  all,  for 
there  are  no  streams  to  wear  valleys  in 
sPonge — j.  it,  and  very  little  soil  from  the  land 

reaches  these  quiet  waters. 


2.  The  Land  and 
the  Sea. 


DIRECTIONS  ON  THE  EARTH. 


3 


Animals  and  plants,  or  parts  of  them,  are  often  buried  in  the 
layers  of  sand  and  mud  which  are  formed  in  the  sea.  During  long 
ages,  many  layers  form  and  gradually  harden  to  rock.  The  remains 
of  animals  or  of  plants  bedded  in  the  rock  are  called  fossils. 

Plants  and  animals  of  many  kinds  live  on  the  land. 
Seaweeds,  fish  and  otlier  kinds  of  creatures  abound  in 
the  shallow  waters  near  the  seashores,  but  the  cold  and 
dark  depths  of  the  sea  have  only  a few,  if  any,  plants 

and  not  nearly  so  many  kinds  of 
animals  as  live  either  in  the  shore 
waters  or  on  the  land. 

Fish  abound  in  many  rivers  and 
lakes.  Some  kinds  of  fish  are  found 
in  fresh  water  only,  but  others  from 
the  salt  water  go  into  the  rivers  to 
spaivn,  or  deposit  their  eggs. 

Some  of  the  small  pictures  on 
this  page  and  that  opposite  show  a 
deep-sea  fish  and  a few  other  forms  of  deep-sea  life. 

We  shall  study  the  land  more  than  the  sea,  because  we 
live  on  the  land  and  get  from  it  most  of  the  things  we  use. 

3.  Directions. 

In  our  country  all  shadows  east  by  the  sun  at  midday 
point  due  north.  When  you  stand  with  your  back  to  the 
midday  sun,  you  face  the  north.  Your  back  is  then 
towards  the  south. 

Have  you  ever  seen  the  noHh  star  ? Do  you  know  how  to  find 
it  by  means  of  the  two  stars  called  pointers,  in  the  “ Dipper  ” ? 

North  is  the  direction  along  the  earth’s  surface  towards  the 
north  star.  South  is  the  opposite  direction,  towards  the  midday  sun. 

Which  is  the  north  side  of  your  schoolroom  ? Which  is  the 
south  side  ? Name  some  objeets 
north  of  your  schoolhouse.  Name 
some  objeets  south  of  it. 


Here  is  the  pieture  of  a mariner' s compass.  Under  its  glass  cover 
is  a round  card,  naming  the  points  of  the  compass,  — N.,  S.,  E.,  W., 

N.E.,  S.E.,  etc.  On  the  under 
side  of  the  card  is  a steel  mag- 
net in  the  form  of  a needle  or 
bar  that  swings  on  a pivot. 

The  needle  generally  points 
almost  north  and  south.1 

By  means  of  the  compass, 
the  sun  or  the  stars,  sailors  can 
at  all  times  tell  the  direction  in 
which  they  are  moving.  With- 
out  this  simple  magnet-needle, 
the  task  of  steering  vessels  from  port  to  port  would  be  very  difficult. 

4.  Directions  on  the  Earth. 

The  earth  is  always  turning  round  like  a ball  spinning 
as  it  flies  through  the  air,  but  the  earth  turns  only  once 
in  twenty-four  hours,  — a day  and  niglit. 

The  sun  can  light  and  warm  only  a little  more  than 
one  half2  of  the  earth 
at  a time.  As  the  earth 
turns,  or  rotateSj  some 
parts  of  it  are  turning 
into  the  sunlight  while 
other  parts  are  turning 
away  from  it.  One  side  of  the  earth  has  day  while  the 
other  side  has  night. 

As  the  earth  rotates,  its  surface  moves  from  west  to 
east.  The  sun  seems  therefore  to  “ rise  ” in  the  east  and 
“ set  ” in  the  west. 

1 The  needle  points  to  the  magnetic  pole  of  the  earth.  Find  this  pole  on 
the  colored  map  of  North  America. 


A Fossil  Shell. 


Mariner  s Compass. 


When  you  face  the  north, 
east  is  on  the  right  side,  and 
west  is  on  the  left. 


When  you  face  the  south,  which 
direction  is  on  the  right  ? Which 
is  then  on  the  left  ? 

Only  twice  each  year1  the  sun 
rises  due  east  of  us  and  sets  due 
west,  but  it  always  rises  in  the 
eastem  part  of  the  sky  and  sets  in 
the  western  part. 

Name  some  objeets  east  of  your 
schoolhouse.  What  street  near 
by  runs  about  east  and  west  ? 

Point  midway  between  north 
and  east.  This  direction  is  called 
northeast  and  may  be  written  N.  E. 

Where  will  you  look  for  southeast  ? Where  will  you  look  for 
S.W.  ? For  N.W.  ? 

1 About  March  21  and  September  22. 


Waves  on  the  Seashore. 

2 If  there  were  no  air  the  sun  would  light  exactly  one  half  of  the  earth 
at  a time.  There  would  then  be  no  twilight,  and  the  sun  would  not  be 
visible  after  it  had  aetually  sunk  beneath  the  horizon  line. 


4 


THE  WORLD  RIDGE  OR  PRIMARY  HIGHLAND. 


Bright  daylight  would  be  tiresome,  if  it  lasted  all  the  time,  with 
no  dark  hours  for  rest  and  sleep.  Endless  night  would  be  cold  and 
dismal,  if  there  were  no  sunshine  to  heat  and  light  the  earth. 


No  person  has  yet  reached  the  poles.  They  are  in  regions  of 
ice  and  snow. 


could  see  the  sun  overhead,  or  nearly  so,  at  noon  every  day.  The 
regions  near  the  equator  have  no  winter.  The  hot  season  lasts  all 
the  year.  Snow  and  iee  are  not  found  there,  except  on  the  tops  of 
high  mountains. 

By  clixnbing  any  very  high  mountain  near  the  equator,  a person 

may  find  the  same  changes 
in  climate  as  in  going  from 
the  equator  to  either  polar 
region. 

The  lands  in  the  hot 
belt  teem  with  life.  Dense 
forests  cover  many  parts 
of  the  surface.  Birds,  in- 
sects  and  large  animals  also 
abound.  In  later  lessons 
we  shall  read  about  some 
of  these  animals. 

We  shall  see  maps 
of  the  earth  in  many 
positions,  but  we  shall 
always  be  able  to  tell  the  directions  on  them,  if  we 
remember  that  north  and  south  are  towards  the  poles, 
while  east  and  west  are  parallel  with  the  equator. 


In  our  land  every  midday  shadow  points  towards  the 
north  pole,  and  so  all  north  lines 
that  we  may  imagine  on  the  earth 
meet  at  that  point.  Going  in  the 
opposite  direction,  all  south  lines 
meet  at  the  south  pole. 

East-and-west  lines  go  round  the 
earth  in  circles.  The  largest  of 
these  circles  is  midway  between 
the  poles  and  is  called  the  equator, 
because  it  divides  the  surface  of  the 
earth  into  two  equal  parts.  All 
east-and-west  lines  run  parallel  with 
the  equator.  When  we  face  the 
north  pole,  east  is  along  the  lines 
to  the  right,  and  west  to  the  left. 


How 
south  ? 


Map  D. 

Key  to  the  World  Ridge  Map,  page  5. 


many  arrows  on  map  A point  north  ? How  many  point 
Which  arrows  point  north  on  map  B ? On  map  C ? 

Which  arrows  are  flying  south  on  map  B ? On  map  C? 
How  many  arrows  on  map  A point  east  ? Which  fly  east 
map  B ? On  map  C ? 

Which  arrow  points  west  on  map  A ? 
On  map  B ? On  map  C ? 

A map  of  half  a globe,  or  spliere,  is 
called  a hemisphere.  Hemi  means  half. 
One  of  the  little  hemispheres  on  this  page 
shows  the  side  of  the  earth  having  the  most  water. 
The  other  shows  the  side  having  the  most  land. 
How  many  lines  on  the  Land  Hemisphere  are  drawn 
nortli-and-south  ? 

Which  pole  is  not  shown  on  map  D ? How  many 
north-and-south  lines  are  shown  on  this  map? 

Knowing  how  to  tell  the  directions  on  the  earth, 
we  may  now  study  the  positions  of  the  great  bodies 
' . of  land  and  water. 


Far  away  in  the  north,  there  is  a point  on  the  earth, 

known  as  the  north  pole. 
It  is  under  the  north 
star,  which  is  often 
called  the  pole  star. 
Opposite  the  north  pole, 
on  the  other  side  of  the 
earth,  there  is  a point 
called  the  south  pole. 

The  word  pole  means 
pivot,  or  point  on  which 
a thing  turns.  The  earth 
does  not  rest  on  any- 
th  ing,  but  turns  in  space 
as  if  held  by  a line  run- 
ning from  pole  to  pole.  We  can  tliink  of  such  a line,  and 
we  will  call  it  the  axis  of  the  earth. 


Of  course  there  are  no  real  circles  to  be  seen  on  the  earth,  but 
we  may  imagine  such  lines  and  name  or  number  them.  We  shall 
find  that  these  lines  are  very  useful  in  helping  to  locate  places  on 
the  globe.  The  equator  is  far  south  of  us.  If  we  were  near  it  we 


5.  The  World  Ridge  or  Primary  Highland. 


Most  of  the  lands  on  the  earth  are  in  large  bodies, 
instead  of  being  scat- 
tered  in  small  islands. 

The  land  is  not  evenly 
distributed  over  the 
earth.  Most  of  it  is 
north  of  the  equator 
and  therefore  much 
nearer  the  north  pole 
than  the  south  pole. 

About  one  fourth  of 
the  earth’s  surface  is 
land, — the  rest  is 
water.  Only  a small 


Water  Hemisphere. 


Land  Hemisphere. 


Map  C. 


CONTINENTS  OR  GRAND  DIYISIONS. 


5 


on  the  outer  side  of  this  highland,  descend 
to  narrow  lowlands  along  the  shores. 


Mark  on  the  map  the  place  where 
you  live.  On  which  side  of  the 
equator  are  the  ends  of 
the  primary  highland  ? In 
how  many  places  does  the 
equator  cross  the  highland? 
Which  part  of  the  pri- 
mary  highland  is  nearest 
the  north  pole  ? Nearest 
the  south  pole  ? 


6.  Oontinents  or  Grand  Divisions. 


Each  of  the  great  highlands  in  the 
world  ridge  forms  the  backbone  of  a large 
body  of  land.  These  lands  are  North 
America,  South  America,  Eurasia  and  Africa. 
Southeast  of  Eurasia  lies  a great  body  of  land 
called  Australia. 


Which  of  these  bodies  of  land  are  north  of  the  equator  ? 
Which  are  crossed  by  the  equator  ? 

There  are  two  parts  of  Eurasia,  — Asia  on  the  east,  and 
Europe  on  the  west.  Which  part  is  the  larger? 


Map  showing  the  World  Ridge. 

part  of  the  surface  south  of  the  equator  is  land.  The  sea 
is  not  wholly  cut  into  separate  oceans  by  the  lands,  but 
it  spreads  in  one  large  body  around  them. 

Through  the  great  bodies  of  land,  we  can  trace  a long 
chain  of  highlands,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a horseshoe. 
We  will  call  this 
chain  of  highlands 
the  world  ridge , or 
th  e primary  highland 
of  the  world.  The 
greater  part  of  the 
world  ridge  consists 
of  long  and  wide 
plateaus,  broken  by 
mountains  and  val- 
leys.  In  many  places 
it  is  hundreds  of 
miles  in  width.  Some 
parts  of  the  world 
ridge  are  not  very 
high. 

On  both  sides  of 
the  primary  high- 
land, the  land  slopes  away  to  the  shores  and  there  dips 
beneath  the  sea.  Most  of  the  longer  slopes  are  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  horseshoe-shaped  highland. 

These  slopes  make  wide  plains  between  the  primary 
highland  and  the  sea.  In  many  places  the  shorter  slopes, 


North  America,  South  America,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa 
and  Australia  are  called  continents,  or  grand  divisions. 

Which  of  these  continents  is  wholly  south  of  the  equator  ? 

Bering  strait  cuts  through  the  primary  highland  and 
separates  the  Old  World  from  America,  or  the  New  World- 


Which  continents  are  in  America  ? Which  are  in  the  Old  World  ? 
What  isthmus  connects  the  two  parts  of  America  ? 

Where  is  the  isthmus  of  Suez  ? What  seas  does  it  separate  ? 
Which  is  the  larger,  — Africa  or  Eurasia  ? Africa  or  North 
America  ? Australia  or  North  America  ? 

Which  continent  is  farthest  from  your  home  ? 


6 


THE  OCEANS. 


7.  The  Oceans. 


The  oceans  cover  about 
tliree  fourths  of  the  earth’s 
surface  and  wholly  or  part- 
ly separate  the  continents 
from  one  another. 

We  may  think  of  the 
vast  area  of  water  around 
the  south  polar  regions  as 
the  main  body  from  which 
all  other  parts  of  the  sea 
extend  like  arms.  Tlius, 
the  Pacific  is  a broad  arm 
lying  partly  between  Amer- 
ica and  the  Old  World,  on 

the  outer  side  of  the  primary  highland.  The  Atlantic  ocean  is  a long  and  crooked  arm  reaching  northward  between 
America  and  the  Old  World,  on  the  inner  side  of  the  primary  highland.  The  Arctic  ocean  is  like  a large  gulf  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  Atlantic  ocean.  The  Indian  ocean  is  a short  but  broad  arm  partly  between  Africa  and  Australia. 

The  Antarctic  ocean  spreads  round  

the  south  pole. 

What  three  oceans  extend  northward 
from  the  Antarctic  ocean  ? 

Which  ocean  is  east  of  America  ? 

Which  is  west  of  America  ? Which  of 
tliese  two  oceans  is  the  larger  ? . 

On  which  side  of  the  Old  World  is 
the  Atlantic  ocean  ? On  which  side  is 
the  Pacific  ocean  ? 

What  small  ocean  adjoins  the  Atlantic 
on  the  north  ? Which  pole  is  near  the 
middle  of  that  ocean  ? 

What  ocean  is  south  of  Asia  ? What 
lands  partly  surround  that  ocean  ? 

Name  the  continents  which  border  on 
the  Pacific  ocean;  on  the  Atlantic  ocean; 
on  the  Arctic  ocean.  What  oceans  border 
on  North  America  ? On  Asia?  Australia? 

Africa  ? South  America  ? 

Let  us  now  learn  how  the  rain,  the  ri  vers,  the  winds 
and  the  ice  change  the  surface  of  the  continents^ 


8.  The  Waste  of  the  Land. 

As  the  weather  changes  from 
warm  to  cold,  or  from  wet  to  dry, 
all  rocks  exposed  to  the  air  and 
the  rain  slowly  decay,  but  many 
years  may  be  needed  to  loosen  only 
a few  grains.  As  rocks  decay  or 
crumble  they  are  said  to  weather. 

The  loosened  parts  weather  finer 
and  finer,  forming  rock  waste  or 
land  waste.  In  some  places  the  rock 
waste  is  thirty  or  forty  feet  in 
depth,  but  in  most  places  it  is 
thinner.  Finely  crumbled  rock 
mixed  with  plant  and  animal  mat- 
ter is  called  soil.  Year  after  year,  plants  grow  and  decay,  while  myriads 
of  insects  and  worms  live  and  die  in  the  fine  rock  waste.  The  remains  of 
the  plants,  the  insects,  the 
worms  and  other  creatures 
mingle  with  the  fine  rock 
waste  to  form  the  dark  ricli 
topsoil.  The  roots  of  most 
plants  grow  in  the  topsoil. 

When  it  is  moist,  the  plants 
take  from  it  part  of  the 
food  needed  for  their 
growth. 

If  rocks  were  so  firm  that 
they  would  not  weather,  the 
plants  which  require  soil  could 
not  grow.  There  would  be  no 
trees  to  supply  lumber  or  fuel, 
and  no  cotton  fiber  to  weave 
into  cloth. 


RAINFALL.  — SPRING S AND  STREAMS. 


7 


In  lands  that  have  but  little  rain  and  frost,  rocks 
weatker  very  slowly.  In  our  own  country,  where  rains 
are  common  and  where  winters  bring  frosts  and  thaws, 
the  decay  of  rocks  is  more  rapid. 

The  monument  shown  in  the  pic- 
ture  stood  for  thousands  of  years  in 
a warm  land,  where  rain  seldom  falls. 

There  its  surface  showed  but  few 
signs  of  decay. 

Not  many  years  ago,  this  monu- 
ment was  brought  to  our  country. 

The  rock  then  crumbled  so  fast  that 
it  became  necessary  to  protect  the 
surface  from  the  weather. 


9.  Rainfall. 


Weathered  Rock. 


Vapor  rises  from  the  oceans, 
and  the  winds  carry  it  about. 

The  vapor  forms  clouds  from 
which  rain  sometimes  falls  on  botli  the  continents  and 
the  oceans. 

On  steep  hillsides,  much  of  the  rainfall  is  quickly 
shed  into  rills,  brooks  or  larger  streams,  washing  away 
soine  of  the  surface  soil.  The  streams  are  thus  filled 
with  rapid  currents  of  muddy  water  and  often  overflow 
their  banks. 

On  flat  land,  a large  part  of  the  rain  sinks  into  the 
ground,  instead  of  running  away.  If  the  soil  is  loose  and 
sandy,  almost  all  the  rainfall  sinks  into  it. 

When  the  rain  ceases  and  the  sky  clears,  some  of  the 
water  which  is  then  left  on  the  grpund  rises  in  vapor. 
The  drying  of  the  ground  is  often  quickened  by  winds 
and  sunshine.  Water  that  changes  to  vapor  is  said  to 
evaporate. 

In  windy  summer  weather,  many  of  the  large  clouds  which  are 
seen  on  the  day  after  a rain  are  made  of  water  that  has  evaporated 
from  the  ground. 

Rain  water  that  stands  till  it  evaporates  does  not  help 
in  washing  soil  down  the  slopes.  The  water  which  soaks 
into  the  ground  does  but  little 
of  that  work.  The  rain  water 
which  runs  off  the  surface 
washes  away  the  greatest 
amount  of  soil. 

10.  Springs  and  Streams. 

Water  that  soaks  into  the 
ground  is  called  ground  water. 

It  creeps  slowly  through  the 
soil  towards  the  lower  land. 

It  is  the  ground  water  which  makes  the  soil  of  meadows 
wetter  than  that  of  hillsides.  Ground  water  often  creeps 
slowly  through  loose  rock  beneath  the  soil.  In  this  way 
the  water  may  travel  underground  for  many  miles. 


In  some  dry  countries,  pipe  wells  are  driven  or  sunk  to 
reach  a supply  of  ground  water.  These  wells  are  often  drilled 
through  layers  of  rock,  beneath  which  the  water  is  creeping. 

Water  may  often  be  seen  coming 
out  of  the  ground  through  little  crev- 
ices,  thus  forming  springs.  Many 
springs  are  found  at  the  foot  of  hill- 
slopes.  Others  appear  along 
borders  of  brooks  or  rivers.  In 
many  places  the  ground  water 
is  found  rising'  in  the  beds  of 
streams  or  lakes. 

The  spring  which  is  farthest 
up  the  valley  trough  is  called 
the  source,  or  head,  of  the  stream 
that  it  feeds. 

Surface  water  is  often  muddy, 
but  nearly  all  ground  water  is 
clear,  because  it  moves  too 
slowly  to  carry  waste.  Spring 
water  is  therefore  much  better 
than  surface  water  for  drinking. 

Wells  also  are  supplied  by 
ground  water. 

Most  springs  llow  so  slowly  that  the  supply  of  ground 
water  from  one  rain  lasts  till  rain  again  falls.  Such 
springs  flow  in  both  rainy  and  fair  weather.  In  long 
dry  spells,  or  drouths,  springs  yield  less  and  less  water, 
or  they  may  even  cease  to  flow.  The  streams  then 
become  very  low,  or  perhaps  dry  up.  When  soil  is  frozen, 
water  cannot  sink  into  it,  In  lands  that  have  long  freezing 
seasons,  plentiful  rains  are  needed  in  autumn  to  give  a 
good  flow 
of  water 
before  the 
s e v e r e 
frosts 
harden 
the  soil. 


This  monu- 
ment is  called 
C leopatra'  s 
Needle.  It  was 
brouglit  from 
Egypt  and  now 
stands  in  Cen- 
tral Park,  New 
York. 


Rainy  Weather. 


Dry  Weather. 


In  winter,  when  the  ground  is 
frozen,  the  rain  water  and  the  melt- 
ing  snow  run  quickly  to  the  streams 
and  often  flood  them.  They  then 
cut  away  their  banks  and  wash 
the  rock  waste  down  their  valleys, 
spreading  it  over  the  flooded  lands  or  even  carrying  it  to 
the  sea.  The  flooded  rivers  often  carry  down  large  blocks 
of  ice  and  trunks  of  trees.  These  do  much  damage  in  break- 
ing  down  bridges  and  clogging  the  beds  of  the  streams. 


8 


LAND  WASTE  ON  THE  WAY  TO  THE  SEA. 


11.  Land  Waste  on  the  Way  to  the  Sea.  slopes  at  the  foot  of  the  crags.  The  finer  waste  is  washed 

into  the  lowlands. 


We  have  learned  that  in  rainy  weather  the  surface  waste 
is  washed  down  the  slopes,  but  in  both  wet 
and  dry  weather  the  whole  sheet  or  layer 
of  soil  and  coarser  rock  waste  is 
very,  very  slowly  creeping  down- 
hill.  With  every  cliange  from 
wet  to  dry,  from  warm 
to  cold,  or  from  frost 
to  thaw,  the  rock 


When  waste  is  washed  down  from  gulleys  on  mountain  slopesi\ 
it  sometimes  forms  great  fan-shaped  heaps.  These 
may  grow  so  large  that  they  push  away  streams 
wliich  flow  in  the  valleys  at  the  base  of  the 
mountain  slopes.  These  heaps  of  waste 
are  called  alluvial  fans.  They  often  be- 
come  very  large  in  dry  countries  where 
the  streams  are  not  strong  enough 
to  wash  the  waste  down  the  val- 
leys. Coarse  waste  forms  steep 
alluvial  fans,  but  the  slopes  are 
more  gentle  where  the  waste  is 

On  gentle  slopes,  the  soil 
moves  very  slowly  and  be- 
comes  deep  and  fine.  There 
the  rocks  may  decay  for  many 
feet  below  the  surface,  thus 
making  plenty  of  soil  for  the 
roots  of  plants.  In  order  to  reach 
the  firm  rock,  the.  waste  must  be 
dug  away  to  a great  depth. 

The  topsoil  in  valleys  consists  mainly 
of  fine  waste  that  has  been  washed  from 
. the  higher  land.  Most  of  the  ground  water  flows 
into  the  valleys  and  helps  to  keep  the  soil  moist. 
Rock  waste  at  F0r  these  reasons  many  of  the  best  f arms  are  in 

Foot  of  CUff  , , , n 

(Spitsbergen),  lowland  valleys. 


Steep  Alluvial  Fan. 


12.  Work  of  the  Winds. 


waste  is  weathering  finer  and  finer  as  it  moves  down  the 
slopes.  The  fine  and  light  surface  waste  creeps  fastest. 
The  undersoil  scarcely  moves,  and  the  firm  rock  beneath 
stands  still.  The  steeper  the  slope,  the  faster  the  waste 
creeps. 

On  many  steep  hillsides  the  fine  waste  creeps  and 
washes  away  nearly  as  fast  as  it  forms,  and  only  the 
coarser  rock  waste  is  left.  The  roots  of  grass  and  trees 
do  much  to  prevent  the  soil  from  being  rapidly  carried 


away. 

On  rough  hills, 
there  are  often 
rocky  ledges 
from  which  the 
waste  is  washed 
or  blown  nearly 
as  soon  as  it 
forms.  On  some 
mountains,  bare 
crags  cover  much 
of  the  surface. 
The  coarse  rock 
waste  rolls  down, 

Gently-Sloplng  Alluvial  Fan  (Cbamounlz,  Alpa).  making  steep 


v Strong  winds 
cannot  reach  soil 
that  is  covered 
with  grass  or 
trees,  but  in  dry 
lands  where  there 
are  but  f ew  plants 
the  winds  sweep 
over  the  ground 
and  scatter  fine 
rock  waste  far 
and  wide.  Coarse 
sand  is  drifted 
along  like  dry 
snow  in  winter. 

The  particles 
of  sand  are  blown 
against  one  an- 
other  and  against 
bare  rocks.  Thus 
both  the  sand  and 
the  rocks  are 
ground  to  dust. 


Waterspout. 


In  deserts,  where  the 


drifting  sand  is  plentiful,  it  gathers  in 


SNOW  AND  ICE. 


hills  called  dunes.  Some  of  these  sandy  hills  are  from 
three  hundred  to  six  hundred  feet  high.  Dunes  are  also 
found  on  sandy  sliores.  Waves  throw 
sand  upon  the  beaches,  and  the  winds 
may  then  blow  it  inland.  Fields,  forests 
and  villages  are  sometimes  buried  by 
drifting  sand. 

Desert  whirlwinds  take  up  fine  dust, 
which  may  then  be  blown  many  miles 
away.  Some  of  the  dust  falls  into  the 
sea,  and  the  winds  thus  help  along  the 
work  of  rivers. 

Sails  of  ships  on  the  ocean  west  of  the  desert 
of  Sahara  are  often  covered  witli  reddish  dust 
from  that  barren 
region.  Locate 
tliis  great  desert 
on  the  map  of 
Africa. 

Whirlwinds  at 
sea  are  generally 
formed  under 
heavy  clouds 
from  which  whirl- 
ing  funnel-sliaped 
spouts  seem  to 
descend  and  join 
the  spray  raised 

from  the  waves.  The  long  whirling  funnels  are  called  waterspouts. 

Waterspouts  occur  most  frequently  over  the  oceans  near  the 
equator,  but  they  are  also  seen  east  of  our  country,  over  the  warm 
parts  of  the  ocean.  The  whirling  winds  of  waterspouts  are  some- 
times strong  enough  to  dismast 

Winds  not  only 
blow  dust  and 
sand  about, 
but  they  also 
sweep  over 
the  sea  and 
make  waves. 
The  waves 
which  roll 
against  the 
land  wash 
stones  and 
sand  back  and  forth 
on  the  seashore,  grinding 
them  very  fine. 

Winds  inix  the  different  parts 
of  the  atmosphere  and  keep  it 
fresh  and  pure.  They  carry  water 
vapor  from  the  sea  to  the  land,  and 
thus  help  to  determine  which  parts 
of  the  land  shall  yield  grain  and 
fruits  and  which  parts  shall  remain 
iceberg.  barren . 


Winds  scatter  the  seeds  of  some  kinds  of  plants,  and  also  aid  in 
the  flight  of  birds  by  lifting  them,  somewhat  as  kites  are  lifted. 

If  it  were  not  for 
currents  of  air  there 
would  be  no  sailing- 
vessels  nor  wind- 
mills. 

Winds  are  some- 
times sd  violent 
that  they  wreck 
vessels  and  blow 
down  trees  and 


Desert  Dunes. 


buildings.  In  later 
lessons  we  shall  learn 
more  about  the  work 
f winds. 


Wlnd-Swept  Desert  of 


13.  Snow  and  Ice. 

/On  some  mountains,  snow  lies  all  the  year  and  becomes 
very  deep  in  the  high  valleys.  Rain  soaks  into  the 
snow,  making  it  more  compact.  The  heavy  mass  slowly 


Rock  Waste  at  the  End  of  a Glacier. 


changes  into  ice.  As  the  layers  of  ice  on  a mountain  grow 
thicker  they  creep  down  the  slopes.  When  the  ice  enters 
the  lower  and  warmer  valleys,  it  gradually  melts  and 
forms  brooks  or  rivers.  Such  a body  of  ice  slowly 
moving  down  a slope  is  called  a glacier. 


10 


RIVERS  AND  RIVER  SYSTEMS. 


Glaciers  carry  along  rock  waste  that  rolls  on  to  them 
from  higher  ground.  They  drag  along  stones,  gravel, 
sand  and  clay  also,  beneath  the  ice,  — scraping  the  sur- 
face  over  which  they  creep.  The  ice  sometimes  liollows 
out  basins  in  the  bottoms  of  valleys. 

Coarse  rock  waste  is  left  in  uneven  heaps  near  the 
melting  ends  of  glaciers,  but  most  of  the 
finer  waste  is  carried  away  by  the  glacier 
streams  which  flow  into  the  lowlands. 

See  picture  on  page  9. 

Sometimes  the  heaps  of  waste  make  bar- 
riers  across  river  valleys,  and  lakes  then 


water  lies  in  the  basins  scraped  out  by  the  ice,  or  behind  the  bar- 
riers  which  the  rock  waste  formed  across  old  river  valleys. 

One  of  the  pictures  on  this  page  shows  a rocky  ledge,  smoothed 
and  rounded  by  the  action  of  ice.  Another  picture  shows  a long 
low  hill  built  of  coarse  rock  waste  that  was  left  in  this  form  by 
an  ancient  ice-sheet.  Such  a hill  is  called  a drumlin.  There  are 
many  old  glacial  lakes,  smoothed  rocks  and  drumlins  in  the  north- 

east  portion  of  our  country. 


When  glaciers  push  their 
way  into  the  ocean,  huge 
blocks  of  ice  break  off  and 
float  away.  These  floating 
masses  are  called  icebergs. 
They  carry  stones,  gravøl 
and  fine  rock  waste  into 
the  sea. 


When  the  icebergs  melt,  what 
becomes  of  this  rock  waste  ? See 
picture  on  page  9. 

Icebergs  chill  the  damp  air 
around  them  and  thus  cause 
dense  fogs.  Many  vessels  have 
struck  blocks  of  floating  ice  and 
have  been  sunk  or  partly  wrecked. 
Far  away  in  the  north  is  a land 
called  Greenland.  The  interior  of  that 
land  is  covered  with  a thick  sheet  of  ice 
and  snow  that  moves  very  slowly  towards 
the  ocean  on  either  side.  Wide  and  deep 
glaciers  from  this  ice-sheet  creep  into  the  sea, 
where  huge  blocks  of  ice  break  off  and  form 
icebergs. 


14.  Rivers  and  River  Systems. 


Some  rivers  start  from  springs.  Others  flow 
from  lakes,  swamps  or  melting  ice  and  snow.  The 
beginning  of  a river  is  called  its  head  or  source. 

While  on  the  way  to  the  sea,  a river  becomes 
larger  and  larger  as  it  is  joined  by  other  streams 
from  side  valleys. 


form  above  the 
barriers. 

Rock  waste  mov- 
ing  on  a glacier,  or 
left  in  a heap  at  the 
end  of  a glacier,  is  called  a moraine.  The  side  or  lateral  moraines 
are  formed  of  waste  that  is  scraped  from  the  sides  of  the  glacier 
trough  or  that  falls  onto  the  border  of  the  moving  ice.  When  two 
branches  of  a glacier  unite,  the  moraines  along  the  sides  which 
meet  form  a medial  moraine.  The  picture  of  a glacier  on  this  page 
shows  both  medial  and  lateral  moraines. 

The  heap  of  waste  at  the  end  of  a glacier  is  a terminal  moraine. 

In  former  times  there  were  glaciers  in  some  parts  of  the  world, 
where  none  are  now  found.  Lakes  abound  in  such  regions.  The 


Large  eities  are  often  built  near 
rivers.  If  the  water  flows  swiftly, 
it  may  be  used  to  turn  mill  wheels. 
If  the  rivers  are  deep  enou^li,  steam- 
ers  and  other  vessels  may  go  from 
place  to  place,  carrying  passengers 
and  freight. 

In  dry  countries  where  no  branches 
join  the  rivers,  they  become  smaller 
and  smaller  as  they  flow  along,  and  they  may  even  disappear  before 
they  reach  the  sea.  The  water  often  continues  as  ground  water 
much  farther  than  it  can  be  traced  in  the  surface  streams. 

Many  wells  in  dry  regions  are  fed  by  ground  water  thus  supplied 
by  vanishing  streams.  In  some  deserts,  travelers  can  reach  the 
ground  water  by  scraping  away  the  sand  in  the  valley  troughs. 
The  water  may  be  only  a few  feet  beneath  the  surface. 

During  long  periods  of  drouth,  trees  may  be  kept  alive  by  the 
ground  water  which  reaches  their  roots  deep  in  the  rock  waste. 


RIVER  BASINS  AND  DIVIDES. 


11 


The  lower  end  of  a river,  where 
it  flows  into  the  sea  or  into  some 
other  body  of  water  is  known  as 
the  mouth  of  the  river. 

Many  of  the  largest  cities  in  the 
world  are  built  near  the  mouths  of 
rivers.  These  cities  carry  on  trade  with 
one  another,  and  collect  and  distribute 
merchandise  for  the  people  in  the  inland 
valleys. 

A river  and  all  its  branches  form 
a river  system.  The  largest  or  the 
longest  stream  in  a system  is  known  as  the  main  river. 

How  many  river  systems  are  shown  in  the  above  picture  ? 


River  Systems  and  River  Basins. 


There  are  many  river  systems  in  each  of  the  continents. 

of  the  main 


l 


America. 


navigable  for  many  hundred  miles  from  the  sea. 


Some 
rivers 
flow  three  or  four 
thousand  miles  from 
source  to  mouth.  On 
the  way  they  receive 
many  branch  streams 
called  tributaries. 
Large  rivers  are  some- 
times  tributaries  of 
still  larger  rivers. 

The  deep  parts  of 
ri  vers,  where  steamers 
and  other  crafts  may 
gofrom  place  to  place, 
are  said  to  be  navi- 
gable. Some  rivers  are,* 


lower  the  slopes  of  their  basins 
are  worn. 

Some  of  the  most  important 
divides  on  the  earth  cross  wide 
plains  whose  slopes  are  too  gentle 
for  the  eye  to  detect. 

The  Amazon  basin  in  South  America 
is  the  largest  in  the  world.  Its  main 
river  pours  into  the  ocean  more  water 
than  any  other  stream.  This  basin  is 
crossed  by  the  equator  and  covers  more 
than  two  million  square  miles.  Steamers 
can  go  for  thousands  of  miles  up  and  down  the  many  branches  of 
the  Amazon  system. 

The  Mississippi  basin  is  the  largest  in  North  America,  but  is 
only  about  one  half  as  large  as  the  Amazon  basin.  The  map  on  this 
page  shows  where  these  great  basins  are. 


Plooded  Connecticut  River. 


15.  River  Basins  and  Divides. 


16.  Young  and  Old  Lands. 


All  the  land  wliich  sheds  water  into  a single  river 
system  forms  a river  basin.  The  basin  generally  takes 
the  same  name  as  the  main 
river  in  the  system. 

Find  the  line  wliich  bounds  the 
basin  of  the  river  marked  C in  the 
picture  at  the  top  of  this  page. 

This  line  runs  along  the  top,  or 
crest,  of  the  ridges,  aud  separates 
the  slopes  in  basin  C from  those 
in  the  other  basins  which  adjoin  it. 

Such  a line  is  called  a divide  or  a 
water  parting.  It  divides  the 
slopes  of  the  basins. 

A river  system 
drains  all  the  land 
which  forms  its  basin. 

From  the  slopes  of  the 
basin,  the  streams 
carry  the  land  waste 
towards  their  mouths. 

Thelonger  the  streams 
continue  to  flow,  the 


A swift  river  rolls  stones  and  sand  along  in  its  bed  and 
thus  wears  it  deeper  and  deeper.  After  long  ages  the 

bed  in  which  the  river  flows 
may  be  worn  down  almost  to 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Then 
the  slope  of  the  stream  will 
be  gentle.  Its  current  will 
be  slow  and  its  wearing 
power  very  slight. 

Most  large  rivers  flow  slow- 
ly,  because  they  have  already 
worn  their  beds  down  to  gen- 
tle slopes.  The  slow 
current  favors  the  use 
of  boats  on  rivers. 

While  a stream  is 
deepening  its  bed,  the 
rock  waste  all  over  its 
basin  is  weathering 
finer  and  finer.  This 
waste  is  always  creep- 
ing  and  washing  into 


12 


YOUNG  AND  OLD  LANDS. 


quickly  from  the  uplands  and  carries  away  much  land  waste.  In 
the  old  land,  most  of  the  upland  is  worn  down  and  only  a few 
hills  remain.  In  time,  even  the  hills  will  waste  away.  Tlien  the 
streams  will  become  sluggish,  but  they  may  be  useful  as  water  ways. 

We  cannot  watch  a land  grow  to  old  age,  for  the  cliange  is  very  , 
^low,  lasting  many  hundred  thousand  years. 


7 


17.  Flood  Plains  and  Deltas. 


Narrow  Valleys  in  a Young  Land  (Colorado). 

the  valley  bottom  or  into  streams  that  carry  it  away. 
Tlius  the  valley  grows  wider  and  its  side  slopes  become 
more  gradual.  The  uplands  or  hills  on  either  side  become  | 
smaller  and  lower,  as  they  slowly  waste  away. 

In  a very  long  time,  even  a highland  may  be  worn 
away  to  a lowland.  Thousands  of  years  are  needed  for 
this  great  work,  but  the  earth  is  very  old,  and  highland 
after  highland  has  been  worn  down. 

Lands  whose  valleys  are  not  yet  widened  may  be  called 
youruj,  even  though  their  streams  have  been  working  for 
thousands  of  years. 

The  picture  at  the  top  of  this  page  shows  a young  land  in  which 
rivers  have  cut  only  narrow  valleys.  The  uplands  between  thé 
valleys  are  almost  level  and  the 
rock  waste  creeps  slowly  down  the 
gentle  slopes  and  tlien  falls  into 
the  valleys. 

Many  small  streams  are  gnaw- 
ing  into  the  upland  and  after  a 
time  it  will  not  be  so  smooth  as 
it  now  is.  We  may  know  that 
this  is  a young  land,  because  the 
streams  have  not  yet  carried  much 
of  it  away. 


After  heavy  rains,  or  after  much  snow  has  quickly 
melted,  great  volumes  of  water  run  down  the  brooks  and 
into  the  rivers.  Then  the  rivers  often  overflow  their 
banks  and  spread  over  the  flat  meadows,  called  flood 
plains,  on  either  side. 

Flooded  rivers  are  very  muddy,  for  they  not  only  cut 
their  own  banks,  but  their  swollen  branches  also  bring 
them  a great  deal  of  land  waste  from  the  sides  of  their 


Lands  whose  valleys  are 
greatly  widened,  and  whose 
hills  or  mountains  are  almost  worn  away,  may 
be  called  old. 


Middle-Aged  Land. 

valleys.  The  water  moves  slowly 
on  the  flood  plains  and  deposits 
thin  layers  of  mud,  called  silt. 
When  the  flood  is  over,  this  silt 
gives  fresh  food  to  plants. 

In  narrow  valleys  the  flood 
plains  extend  for  only  a sliort  distance  on  either  side  of  the  river. 
In  broad  valleys  the  flood  plains  may  be  several  miles  wide. 


Old  Land. 


In  the  middle-aged  country,  the  uplands  are  deeply 
and  widely  cut  by  valleys.  The  rain  water  runs 


Many  people  live 
on  flood  plains  because 
they  are  so  fertile.  In 
dry  countries,  flood 
plains  are  the  best 
places  for  people  to 
settle,  because  the  river 
water  can  be  led  in 
canals  and  ditches 
across  such  plains. 

Most  of  the  sflt 
borne  along  by 
rivers  is  slowly 
washed  down  the 


Mountalnous  Region  and  Coastal  Plaln. 


COASTAL  PLAINS  AND  LAKE  PLAINS. 


13 


i 


COASTAL  PLÅlfJ  . N . J 


The  settlings,  called  sediment,  form  low  and  flat  plains 
in  which  the  rivers  often  divide  into  many  branches,  called 
distributaries.  The  distributaries  sometimes  change  their 
course,  cutting  new  chan- 
nels  across  the  plain. 

Lowlands  thus  formed 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
are  known  as  deltas.  Most 
del  tas  are  the  lower  ends 
of  flood  plains  built  out 
into  the  sea.  The  soil  of 
delta  plains  is  generally 
fine  and  fertile. 

In  the  far  east,  about  half- 
way  round  the  earth  from  us, 
there  is  a large  delta  plain  on 
which  millions  of  Chinese  people  live. 
delta  was  made  by  the  Yellovv  river. 

This  river  sometimes  takes  a new  course  across  its 
delta  plain.  Fields,  villages  and  cities  are  then  flooded 
or  swept  away,  and  many  people  are  drowned. 

The  Mississippi  river,  in  our  own  country,  has  made 
a flood  plain  several  miles  wide  and  hundreds  of  miles 
long.  Its  lower  part  is  a very  large  delta  plain.  These 
lowlands  built  by  the  great  river  are  / 
very  fertile.  ' 


Coastal  Plains  and  Lake  Plains. 


City  on  a Narrow  Flood  Plain.  (Ems,  Prussia.) 

smooth  by  layers  of  silt  washed  from  the  land.  When 
evenly  uplifted,  the  smooth  bottom  forms  plains  having 

very  gen  tie  slopes.  Fossil  sea- 
shells  are  often  found  in  the 
rocky  layers  of  such  land. 

A plain  that  was  once  part 
of  the  sea-bottom  and  that  is 
now  near  the  coast  is  called 
a coastal  plain. 

Before  the  Coastal  plain  shown 
in  the  picture  on  the  opposite  page 
was  raised  from  the  sea,  the  shore 


Most  of  this 


Many  parts  of  the  land  were 
formerly  under  the  shallow  water 


-?*?■: 


of  the  ocean  border.  Ages  ago  they  were  slowly  raised 
from  beneath  the  sea  and  became  dry  land.  The  sea- 
bottom  near  the  shores  of  the  continents  is  slowly  made 


was  nearer  the  high  land. 
The  mouths  of  the  rivers 
were  then  at  the  old 
shore  line.  The  rivers 
now  flow  across  the 
young  coastal  plain. 

The  rivers  A and  B 
were  at  one  time  in 
separate  systems  but 
are  now  joined  into  one. 
Every  continent  has 
coastal  plains  at  some  parts  of  its  border.  These  plains  vary 
in  width  from  a few  miles  to  hundreds  of  miles.  The  surfaces 
of  coastal  plains  quickly  weatlier  into  fine  soil  and  often  make 
good  farming  lands.  The  map  on  the  next  page  shows  a large 
coastal  plain  in  our  own  country.  Near  the  coast  the  plain  is  still 


14 


MOUNTAINS. 


teaus.  Most  of  the  rocky  layers  in  plateaus 
were  made  very  long  ago  beneath  the  sea. 

Some  plateaus  are  so  old  that  broad  valleys  have 
been  worn  in  them,  thus  making  many  small  plateaus 
out  of  each  large  one.  The  map  on  this  page  sliows 
a high  and  wide  plateau  region  in  our  own  country. 

Low  plains  can  have  only  shallow  valleys,  but 
plateaus  are  often  broken  by  deep  valleys,  making 
travel  very  difficult. 


19.  Mountains. 


Mountains  (Jungfrau,  Alps). 

smooth,  but  farther  inland  it  is  already  much  worn  by  streams. 
Pine  forests  cover  parts  of  the  plain,  while  cotton  and  tobacco 
grow  in  the  more  fertile  districts. 

Some  plains  were  formed  under 
lakes  and  were  laid  bare  when  the 
water  was  drained  away. 

One  of  the  pictures  on  page  13  shows  a 
great  lake  plain,  with  broad  harvest  fields. 

This  pTåin  ls~so  young  that  hardly  any 
valleys  are  worn  below  its  level  surface. 

Find  the  lake  plain  on  the  map  below. 

Many  lake  plains  are  found  in  val- 
leys among  mountains.  These  plains 
are  small,  but  in  regions  where  the 
steep  slopes  have  only  a thin  and 
stony  soil  left  on  them,  the  meadows 
in  the  old  lake  bottoms  are  of  great  value  for  farming. 
Plains  that  stand  high  above  sea  level  are  called  pla- 


Mountains  are  rugged  parts  of  the  earth’s 
surface  that  rise  high  above  the  surrounding 
country.  They  are  generally  formed  by  the 
wearing  of  deep  valleys  in  regions  that  have 
been  greatly  uplifted.  The  mountains  are  the 
high  parts  not  yet  worn  away. 

While  the  great  masses  are  being  lifted,  their 
rocks  sometimes  fold  or  break  underground.  Every 
snap  or  slip  in  the  rocks  causes  the  surrounding 
region  to  tremble.  The  trembling  is  called  an  earthr/uake. 

Some  earthquakes  are  very  faint,  but  others  are  violent  enough 


Valleys  cut  in  a Plateau. 

to  throw  down  houses.  The  next  lesson  tells  another  cause  of 
earthquakes. 


The  United  States. 


Some  mountain  regions  are  worn  away 
to  sharp  rocky  peaks.  The  mountains  of 
other  regions  are  rounded  like  domes.  Still 
others  have  flat  tops  and  steep  sides. 

A high  and  rugged  ridge,  or  several  such 
ridges  near  one  another,  may  be  called  a 
mountain  range.  Some  ranges  are  hundreds 
of  miles  long. 

Find  five  ranges  on  the  map.  Which  of  these 
ranges  lie  along  the  border  of  the  great  plateau 
region  in  our  country. 

A number  of  ranges  having  the  same 
general  direction  in  one  great  highland 
form  a mountain  system. 

All  the  ranges  in  the  western  part  of  our 
country  belong  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  system. 
This  mountain  region  was  very  unevenly  lifted 


VOLCANOES. 


15 


and  is  now  so  greatly  worn  away  that  its  surface  has  gone  down 
to  beds  of  rock  that  were  once  deeply  buried.  It  is  in  such  deep  jq 
layers  of  rock  that  veins  yielding  gold  and  silver  ore  are  found. 
When  the  surface  is  worn  down  near  them  they  can  be 
mined. 

High  mountains  reach  into  the  upper  air  which 
is  cold,  even  when  the  air  in  low  valleys  not 
many  miles  away  is  very  warm.  On  the  lofty 
peaks,  three  miles  or  more  above  sea  level, 
the  air  is  so  light  or  thin  that  persons  find 
it  difficult  to  breathe  there.  The  lower  air, 
near  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  dense  because 
it  is  pressed  down  by  all  the  air  above  or 
upon  it. 

Winds  are  active  around  high  mountains, 
and  clouds  form  quickly  in  the  cooled  air  as  it 
rises  to  cross  the  ranges.  When  the  air  is 
cooled  enough,  it  gives  out  snow  or  rain. 

Snow  often  falls  on  the  mountains,  while 
rain  is  falling  in  the  lower  valleys. 

Great  snowslides  or  landslides  sometimes 
rush  from  the  mountain  sides  into  the  val- 
leys, uprooting  trees  and  burying  houses. 

A slide  of  snow  or  of  rock  waste  is  called 
an  avalanche. 

Some  plateaus,  deeply  cut  by 
streams,  are  called  mountains,  but 
many  mountains  are  higker 
than  plateaus  and  are  not  so 
evenly  raised  above  the  sea.  ) 

20.  Volcanoes. 

In  some  parts  of  the 
world,  melted  rock,  or  lava, 
has  been  pushed  up  from 
beneath  the  surface  through 
breaks  in  the  surface  rocks, 
and  has  cooled  in  great 
cone-shaped  heaps  or  in  broad 
sheets.  In  some  places  this  work 
is  still  going  on. 

Steam  and  gases  sometimes  burst  forth 
witli  the  lava,  shaking  the  surrounding 
country  and  thus  causing  severe  eartli- 
quakes.  The  lava  is  then  blown  into  frag- 
ments  called  ashes,  or  even  into  fine  dust 
that  may  be  carried  many  miles  by  the 
wind.  Cones  built  of  lava  and  ashes  have 
steep  sides,  with  hollows  or  craters  in  the  top, 
where  the  gases  and  ashes  were  blown  out. 

Lava  often  escapes  through  cracks,  or  fissures, 
in  the  sides  of  cones  as  well  as  from  the 
craters. 

When  the  lava  is  pushed  out  quietly,  it  does 
not  form  such  steep-sided  cones.  The  molten 
rock  then  runs  in  long  streams  or  sheets, 
and  sometimes  covers  many  square  miles  of  country.  The  more 
liquid-like  the  lava,  the  farther  it  flows  and  the  gentler  the  slopes 
of  the  cone  become. 


Each  of  tliese  cone-shaped  masses  is  called  a volcano. 
may  be  no  larger  than  a hill,  or  it  may  be  two  or 
three  miles  in  lieight. 

The  bursting  forth  of  lava  from  a volcano  or 
a fissure  is  called  an  eruption.  Many  erup- 
tions  must  take  place  to  build  up  a great 
volcanic  cone. 

The  molten  rock  from  volcanoes 
sometimes  spreads  out  in  wide  plains. 
In  some  places,  lava  has  poured  from 
long  fissures  in  the  earth’s  surface  and 
has  formed  plains  that  cover  many 
thousand  square  miles. 

The  picture  marked  “ Lava  Plain,  Idaho,” 
shows  part  of  a great  lava  plain  in  our 
country.  The  lava  has  weathered  slightly 
and  its  scanty  soil  now  supports  sagebrush. 

The  plateau  shown  in  the  picture  on  the 
opposite  page  is  built  of  many  thick  lava 
sheets.1  It  is  older  than  the  lava  plain 
shown  on  this  page,  for  the  surface  of  the 
former  is  more  deeply  cut  by  valleys. 

The  lowest  picture  in  the  group  shows  a 
stump,  or  neck,  of  lava  which  may  have 
supplied  an  ancient  volcano.  This  neck  filled 
the  passage  in  the  rocks  through  which  the 
molten  lava  rose  from  its  deep 
source.  At  that  time  the  surface 
of  the  country  was  much  higher 
than  at  present.  It  has  since 
worn  away,  and  the  hard  lava 
of  the  neck  remains  standing 
above  it. 

Deep  fissures  filled  with  hard 
lava  have  been  laid  bare,  when 
the  softer  rock  about  them  has 
been  worn  away.  These  old  lava- 
filled  fissures  sometimes  rise  like  long 
rocky  walls,  and  are  known  as  dylces. 
There  are  many  lava  necks  and  dykes  in 
the  western  part  of  our  country. 

Most  volcanoes  are  found  not  many 
miles  from  the  coasts  of  the  continents, 
or  on  islands  not  far  offshore.  Many 
more  volcanoes  are  found  near  the  Pacific 
coast  than  near  the  Atlantic. 

Besides  these,  a large  number  of  small 
islands  have  been  wholly  built  by  volcanic 
action,  sometimes  even  growing  from  the 
deep  floor  of  mid-ocean. 

Some  eruptions  have  also  taken  place  on 
the  continents  several  hundred  miles  from  the 
seacoast,  as  in  the  Eocky  mountains  of  our 
country,  but  such  eruptions  are  rare. 

As  we  study  the  different  countries,  we 
shall  learn  more  about  volcanoes,  some  of 
which  have  destroyed  cities  and  towns. 

1 This  plateau  is  in  the  Western  Ghats,  India,  and  is  part  of  the  Deccan 
lava  flow.  In  that  region,  the  lava  has  spread  over  an  area  of  about 
200,000  square  miles. 


16 


SHORE  FORMS. 


WORK  <>'  STO  R M S 


SANDY  SHORE 


WAVES.  — SHORE  FORMS. 


17 


ff  ,-A  J 


21.  Waves. 


Breakers  or  Surf. 


Winds  blowing  over  the 
sea  make  waves.  Under 
strong  winds  the  waves  are 
sometimes  thirty  or  forty 
feet  high,  from  trough  to 
crest. 


If  a hanging  rope  is  struck 
or  shaken,  waves  glide  along  it. 

The  rope  simply  bends  to  form 
the  waves. 

The  water  in  waves  only  rises 
and  falls,  like  the  waves  in  the  rope,  but  the  wave-forms  travel 
forward.  The  larger  they  are,  the  faster  they  move.  In  the  open 
sea  some  waves  travel  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a mile  a minute. 

Storms  at  sea  are  dangerous  chiefly  on  account  of  the  waves. 
They  pitch  vessels  about  and  sometimes  wreck  them. 

The  great  waves  produced  in  a storm  may  spread  far  across  the 
ocean.  They  lose  height  as  they  go,  and  are  then  ealled  smell. 

When  the  swell  approaches  shallow  water  near  shores,  it 
increases  in  height  again  and  rolls  forward  in  the  form  of  breakers 
or  surf  on  beaches. 

Waves  on  beaches  often  wash  pebbles  and  sand  up  and  down, 
grinding  them  liner  and  finer.  Great  storm-waves  are  strong  enough 
to  move  large  blocks  of  rock. 

When  severe  earthquakes  occur  near  coasts  or  at  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  they  produce  broad  waves,  ealled  earthquake  waves,  that 
travel  with  great  speed.  Such  waves  rolling  upon  shallow  shores 
become  very  high  and  strong.  Vessels  in  harbors  are  sometimes 
dragged  from  their  moorings  and  carried  by  earthquake  waves  far 
up  the  shores. 


. / 22.  Shore  Forms.  ^ 

Straight  or  regular  shores  are  found  where  smooth 
bottoms  have  been  slowly  raised  from  the  sea. 


Along  such  shores  there  are  but  few  bays  in  wliich  vessels  can 
find  shelter  from  winds  and  waves.  People  living  near  regular 
shores  are  seldom  good  sailors. 


A neck  of  land  joining  a 
peninsula  with  another  body 
of  land  is  ealled  an  isthmus. 

A strait  is  a body  of  water 
joining  two  larger  bodies  of 
water.  A strait  may  be 
many  miles  in  width,  but 
it  is  always  narrower  than 
the  bodies  of  water  wliich 
it  connects.  The  word 
strait  means  narroio. 

Some  long  and  shallow 
straits  are  ealled  sounds.  The  name  sound  may  also  be 
given  to  any  body  of  water  partly  inclosed  by  islands. 
Sounds  and  straits  are  often  only  drowned  valleys.  Some 
of  them  are  very  deep 

Large  arms  of  the  sea  are  ealled  bays,  cjidfs  or  seas. 
Some  of  these  are  hundreds  of  miles  long  and  wide. 

Bodies  of  water  that  afford  shelter  to  vessels  are  known 
as  harbors.  Many  fine  harbors  are  found  in  the  mouths 
of  rivers  or  in  drowned  valleys. 

Along  ir- 
regular  coasts 
vessels  find 
shelter  in  bays 
or  behind  is- 
lands. Men 
living  near 
such  coasts 
generally  be- 
come  good 

Sailors.  A Flord,  Norway. 


hhhhhhbhi 


Storm-waves  slowly  wear  away  parts  of  some  coasts. 
The  waves  beat  most  violently  on  headlands  that  jut  far 
out  into  the  sea.  As  these  are  worn  back,  their  steep 
faces  form  sea-cliffs. 


Irregular  shores  occur  where  hilly  or  mountainous 
lands  have  partly  sunk  beneath  the  sea. 

Valleys  that  have  sunk  beneath  the  sja  are  said  to  be 
drowned.  The  drowned  valleys  form  bays.  Deep,  long 
and  narrow  bays  are  known  as  fjords.  The  ridges,  hills, 
or  other  parts  of  the  land  between  the  drowned  valleys, 
may  form  islands  or  peninsulas. 

The  pieture  at  the  bottom  of  this  page  shows  seyeral  fiords 
formed  by  the  partial  drowning  of  the 
mountainous  region  shown  in  a pieture 
on  page  12.  Some  fiords  are  many 
miles  long  and  are  very  deep. 

There  are  many  fiords  along  the 
northwest  coasts  of  North  America 
and  Europe. 

The  word  peninsula  means  al- 
most  an  island.  Peninsulas  are 
only  partly  surrounded  by  water. 


Low  and  sandy  shores  may  be  so  rapidly  worn  that  houses  are 
undermined  and  washed  away. 

In  cold  regions  floating  ice  helps  to  change  the  shore  lines. 
Tons  of  sand,  pebbles  and  large  rocks  become  imbedded  in  the  ice 
and  are  thus  borne  out  to  sea.  Ice  is  also  driven  by  waves  against 
the  shores,  where  it  helps  to  grind  even  the  rocky  cliffs. 

Rock  waste  from  headlands  often  forms  beaches  at  the 
foot  of  the  cliffs.  Part  of  the  waste  is  also  carried  by 
waves  along  the  shores,  where  it  is  spread  out  into  beaches 

or  built  into  bars,  cutting  off 
parts  of  bays.  In  this  way  the 
shores  become  straighter. 

W aves  often  gather  sand  from 
shallow  bottoms  and  throw  it 
up  in  bars  off  low  shores,  thus 
partly  inclosing  bodies  of  water, 
ealled  lagoons. 

Fine  waste  from  the  land 
settles  in  the  quiet  lagoons,  and 


Fiords  or  Drowned  Valleys. 


18 


BELTS  OF  HEAT. 


water-plants  then  grow  there.  In  time  the  lagoons  may 
thus  be  filled,  forming  marshes.  There  are  rnany 
thousand  acres  of  marsh  land  formed  in  this  way  along 
the  eastern  coast  of  our  country. 

Sometimes  the  beaches  and  bars  are  made  of  cobblestones  or  of 
pebbles  worn  round  and  smooth,  by  being  rolled  against  one  another. 
Many  beaches  and  bars  are  made  of  sand.  More  than  one  half  the 
shores  of  the  United  States  are  low  and  sandy. 

23.  Beits  of  Heat. 

The  sun  is  a hot  globe  more  than  a million  times  as 
large  as  the  eartli.  This  great  globe  is  very  far  away,  yet 
it  keeps  the  eartli  warm  enougli  to  support  life. 

If,  when  Columbus  set  sail  on  his  first  voyage  to  America,  some 
object  could  have  left  the  sun  and  traveled  at  the  rate  of  twenty- 
five  miles  an  hour  towards  the  earth,  that  object  would  still  be 
several  million  miles  away  from  the  earth.  The  average  distance 
of  the  earth  from  the  sun  is  about  93,000,000  miles. 


hot  belt  lies  a belt  of  land  and  sea  on  which  the  sun’s 
rays  fall  with  but  little  slant.  We  will  call  these  two 
beits  the  warm  beits. 

Between  the  warm 
belt  and  the  cold  belt, 
on  eacli  side  of  the 
equator,  lies  another 
belt  on  which  the 
rays  fall  with  a great 
deal  of  slant.  These 
two  beits  are  the  cool 
beits. 


EQUA 

aE! 

TOR 

Pigure  1. 


In  later  lessons  we  shall  learn  why  the  lines  between  the  beits 
are  somewhat  irregular. 

Between  the  heat  beits,  there  are  no  sudden  changes  from  hot  to 
warm,  from  warm  to  cool,  or  from  cool  to  cold.  All  the  way  from 
the  belt  of  greatest  heat  to  the  places  of  greatest  cold,  there  is 
only  a very  gradual  change. 


Heat  Beits. 


There  is  very  little  land  in  the 
cool  and  cold  beits  south  of  the 
equator.  Name  in  order  the  heat 
beits  which  would  be  crossed  in 
going  from  pol$  to  pole. 

24.  Changes  of  Season. 

Once  a year  the  earth 
moves,  or  revolves,  in  an 
almost  circular  path  round 
the  sun.  This  path  is  called 
the  earth’s  orbit.1 


The  earth  is  one  of  many  bodies, 
called  planets,  that  revolve  round 
the  sun.  The  diagram  on  the  oppo- 
site  page  shows  which  part  of  the 
orbit  the  earth  moves  through  each 


The  sun’s  rays  shine  through  clear  air  without  warming 
it  very  much,  but  they  warm  the  clouds  and  the  dust  in 
the  air,  and  also  the  surface  of  the  land  and  the  sea.  All 
these  help  to  warm  the  air  about  them,  but  the  land  and 
the  seas  warm  the  air  much  more  than  the  clouds  and 
the  dust  do. 

Figure  1 shows  how  the  sun  shines  on  different  parts  of  the 
earth.  Over  the  line  B all  the  rays  are  nearly  vertical.  Over  the 
line  A the  rays  strike  the  earth  with  greater  slant.  As  many  rays 
shine  on  B as  on  A,  but  the  slanting  rays  spread  over  the  greater 
surface,  and  therefore  cannot  heat  it  so  much.  The  more  nearly 
vertical  the  rays  are,  the  greater  their  heating  power. 

Near  the  equator  the  sun’s  rays  are  vertical,  or  nearly 
so,  at  noon  every  day.  There  the  air  is  hot  all  the  year, 
except  high  above  sea  level.  That  region  of  hot  air  is 
called  the  hot  belt. 

Around  the  poles  the  rays  are  very  slanting,  and  the 
air  is  always  cold  or  cool.  The  polar  regions  are  known 
as  the  cold  beits. 

Between  the  hot  belt  and  the  cold  beits,  there  are  other 
beits  neither  so  hot  nor  so  cold.  On  eitlier  side  of  the 


month.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the  earth  moves. 

The  eartlTs  axis  does  not  stand  upright  from  the  plane 
of  its  orbit,  but  slants  so  that  the  strongest  sunshine  falls 
north  of  the  equator  during  about  one  half  of  the  year, 
and  south  of  the  equator  during  the  other  half. 

All  the  year  the 
axis  of  the  earth 
points  toicards  the 
north  star  and  is 
therefore  called  a 
fixed  axis}  Every 
moment  the  earth 
changes  its  own  posi- 
tion  with  regard  to 
Pigure  2.  the  sun,  but  the 

1 The  orbit  is  an  ellipse,  with  the  sun  near  the  center. 

2 Although  the  earth's  axis  makes  no  perceptible  change  from  year  to 
year,  yet  in  long  ages  a great  change  takes  place.  In  about  12,500  years 
the  bright  star  Vega,  in  the  constellation  of  Lyra,  will  be  the  north  star. 
In  about  double  that  length  of  time,  the  axis  will  again  point  towards  the 
present  north  star. 

Even  now  the  north  star  is  not  exactly  in  line  with  the  earth’s  axis. 


THE  ZONES  OF  LIGHT. 


19 


direction  of  the  axis  remains  the  same.  The  northern 
end  of  _ the  axis  leans  towards  the  sun  in  June,  when  the 
sunsliine  is  strongest  north  of  the  equator;  and  away 
from  the  sun  in  December,  when  the  sunshine  is  strongest 
south  of  the  equator.1  As  the  earth  moves  round  its  orbit, 
the  sun’s  rays  are  strongest  north  of  the  equator  during 
our  spring  and  summer,  but  south  of  the 
equator  during  our  autumn  and  winter. 

Half  the  year,  the  vertical  rays  fall  north 
of  the  equator,  but  they  fall  farthest  north  on 
the  twenty-first  day  of  June.  At  that  time 
the  northern  summer  and  the  Southern  winter 
begin.  See  figure  8. 

During  the  other  half  of  the  year  the  ver- 
tical rays  shine  south  of  the  equator,  but  they 
shine  farthest  south  on  the  twenty-first  day  of 
December,  — at  about  Christmas  time.  Then 
the  northern  winter  and  the  Southern  summer 
begin.  See  figure  4- 

Our  spring  opens  on  the  twenty-first  day  of 
March,  when  the  vertical  rays  fall  on  the 
equator,  and  the  days  and  nights  are  every- 
where  of  equal  length.  The  earth  is  then 
moving  in  that  part  of  its  orbit  which  brings 
the  vertical  rays  farther  and  farther  north  of 
the  equator  and  makes  our  days  longer  than 
the  nights.  The  spring  is  the  warming  season 
between  winter  and  summer.  See  figure  2. 

The  first  day  of  our  autumn  brings  the  earth 
to  that  part  of  its  orbit  where  the  sun  again 
shines  over  the  equator,  but  the  vertical  rays 
are  each  day  moving  southward,  making  our 
nights  longer  than  our  days.  The  northern 
autumn,  or  the  cooling  season  between  summer 
and  winter,  begins  on  the  twenty-second  day  of 
September.  See  figure  2 .2 


about  one  fourtli  the  distance  from  the  equator  to  the 
poles.  The  belt  of  land  and  water  lying  between  or 
within  the  tropics  is  called  the  torrid 4 zone.  It  includes 
the  greater  part  of  the  hot  belt. 

When  the  sun  is  over  the  equator,  the  line  between  daylight  and 
darkness  passes  through  botli  poles.  See  figure  2. 


25.  The  Zones  of  Light. 

The  line  around  the  earth,  upon  which  the  vertical  rays  | 

fall  when  farthest/ 
north,  is  called  the 
tropic  of  Cancer. 

The  line  upon  which 
the  vertical  rays  fall 
when  farthest  south 
is  called  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn? 

pigure  3.  The  tropics  are  at 

1 Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  sun  is  not  in  the  center  of  the  earth’s  orhit, 
and  that  the  earth  does  not  move  at  the  same  rate  of  speed  in  all  parts  of 
its  orbit,  the  vertical  rays  fall  north  of  the  equator  for  about  185  days, 
and  south  of  the  equator  for  about  180  days. 

2 For  soine  purposes,  the  seasons  are  divided  at  the  beginning  of  March, 
June,  September  and  December.  Thus,  the  average  temperature  of  summer 
is  based  on  the  temperature  of  the  entire  months  of  June,  July  and  August. 

8 The  word  tropic  means  the  turning  place,  and  applies  to  the  line  over 
which  the  sun  seems  to  turn  backward  on  its  journey.  Cancer,  the  Crab, 
and  Capricornus.  the  Goal,  are  names  of  groups  of  stars  through  which  the 
sun  once  seemed  to  pass  when  over  the  tropics. 


Diagram  sti  owing  the  Position  ol  the  Earth  in  its  Orbit  each  Month. 

When  the  sun  is  over  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  the  light  extends  far 
beyond  the  north  pole,  but  does  not  reach  the  south  pole,  because 
only  one  half  the  earth  is  lighted  at  once.  See  figure  8. 

When  the  sun  is  over  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  a region  all  around 
the  south  pole  is  in  the  light,  but  the  north  polar  region  is  in  dark- 
ness. See  figure  4- 

These  figures  show 
that  at  all  times  the  lines 
between  light  and  dark- 
ness are  just  as  far  from 
the  poles-  as  the  sun  is 
north  or  south  of  the 
equator.  When  the  sun 
is  over  either  tropic,  the 
lines  between  light  and 
darkness  must  therefore 

be  at  about  one  fourth  of  the  distance  from  the  poles'to  the  equator. 

When  the  sun  is  over  the  equator,  every  place  from 
pole  to  pole  has  twelve  liours  of  day  and  twelve  hours  of 
night.  As  the  earth  moves  along  that  part  of  its  orbit  which 
brings  the  vertical  rays  farther  and  farther  north  of  the 

4 Torrid  means  parched ; frigid,  cold ; temperate,  moderate. 


Figure  4. 


20 


SEASONS  OF  THE  HEAT  HF.T.TS 


equator,  the  days  in  the  northern  hemispliere  become 
longer  and  the  nights  shorter.  The  farther  north  a place 
is,  the  longer  its  day light  then  lasts. 

As  the  sun  shines  farther  north  of  the  equator,  there  is 
a growing  cap  around  the  north 
pole,  within  which  there  is  no  dark- 
ness.  When  the  sun  is  farthest 
north,  the  cap  of  constant  dayliglit 
is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  circle. 

As  the  earth  moves  in  that  part 
of  its  orbit  which  carries  the  vertical 
rays  away  from  the  tropic  of  Cancer, 
the  cap  of  constant  dayliglit  in  the 
far  north  grows  smaller,  and  it 
finally  disappears  when  the  sun 
crosses  the  equator. 

As  the  sun  moves  south  of  the 
equator,  a cap  of  constant  darkness 
grows  around  the  north  pole,  while 
a cap  of  constant  dayliglit  around 
the  south  pole  grows  till  it  reaches 
the  Antarctic  circle.  The  Arctic  and  the  Antarctic  circles 
are  known  as  the  polar  circles. 

Which  of  these  lines  bounds  the  north  frigid  zone  ? Which 
bounds  the  south  frigid  zone  ? The  frigid  zones  include  almost  all 
parts  of  the  cold 
beits  or  cold  caps. 

Wliat  circles 
bound  the  temper- 
ate  zones  ? These 
zones  include  most 
parts  of  the  cool 
beits  and  the  warm 
beits. 

Thus  we  see 
that  at  the  north 
pole,  daylight  lasts 
for  six  months,  or 
while  the  sun  is 
north  of  the  equa- 
tor. During  that 
time  the  south  pole 
is  in  darkness. 

While  the  sun  is 
south  of  the  equa- 
tor the  south  pole 

is  in  constant  day-  Ferns  growing  on  Trees,  India. 

light,  and  the  nortli  pole  is  in  darkness. 

At  the  polar  circles  the  longest  period  of  light  or 
of  darkness  is  twenty-four  hours.  The  Arctic  circle 
has  its  longest  daylight  when  the  sun  is  over  the 
tropic  of  Cancer.  When  do  places  on  the  Antarctic 
circle  have  their  longest  period  of  light? 

Between  the  Arctic  circle  and  the  north  pole  the 
longest  periods  of  daylight  vary  from  twenty-four 
hours  to  six  months.  Each  place  within  this  circle  has  continuous 
light  for  a day,  or  for  some  greater  length  of  time  not  more  than 
six  months.  Each  place  has  only  one  of  these  long  days  yearly, 
but  it  has  also  many  days,  or  periods  of  light,  less  than  twenty- 


four  hours  long.  The  nearer  the  pole,  the  longer  the  great  period 
of  daylight  lasts. 

The  south  frigid  zone  has  the  same  number  of  light  and  of  dark 
periods  as  the  north  frigid  zone.  The  longest  period  of  daylight  in 
any  place  within  either  of  the  polar  circles  lasts  during  the  longest 
period  of  darkness  in  some  place  just  as 
far  within  the  other  polar  circle. 

X . ^ 

26.  Sealsons  of  the  Heat  Beits. 

The  open  oceans  and  the  air  over 
them  do  not  warm  mucli  in  summer 
nor  cool  much  in  winter.  The 
greatest  changes  in  heat  take  place 
over  wide  lands.  These  heat  very 
quickly  in  the  strong  sunshine  of 
the  long  summer  days,  and  they 
cool  very  quickly  in  the  long  winter 
nights.  The  larger  the  land  area, 
the  more  extreme  its  seasons  are. 
Cold  Beits.  The  seasons  in  the 


Map  of  the  Zones. 


cold  beits  are  a long  and  extreme]  y 

O 


cold  winter,  and  a short  cool  summer. 

During  the  long  winter  nights,  how  cold  the  air  of  these  beits 
must  become  ! Ice  and  snow  cover  the  land  and  almost  all  parts 
of  the  polar  seas.  Only  a few  places  in  the  Arctic  ocean  are  kept 
onen  by  water  drifting  from  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic. 

Even  during  the  long  daylight  of  summer,  the  air  of  the  cold 
beits  cannot  become  very  warm,  because  snow  and  ice  cover  most 
of  the  land  and  sea  near  the  poles  and  a large  part  of  the  sunshine 
is  taken  to  melt  a portion  of  this  snow  and  ice.  The  few  people 
living  within  the  northern  cold  belt  are  found  mostly  near  the 
shores  past  which  the  warmer  waters  drift  from  the  south. 
These  people  get  their  food  mainly  by  hunting  and  fishing, 
or  by  tending  herds  of  reindeer.  No  people  live  in  the 
Southern  cold  belt. 

Brilliant  lights,  called  the  aurora,1  sometimes  appear  in 
the  polar  skies,  and  are  also  seen  from  places  far  beyond 
the  frigid  zones.  The  auroras  diminish  the  darkness  of 
the  long  polar  night. 

Cool  Beits.  In  the  northern 
cool  belt  the  lands  are  wide. 
There  the  winter  days  are  short, 


Caught  in  an  Ice  Floe  in  Balfin  Bay.  Eskimo  Boy. 

and  the  sunshine  of  that  season  is  slanting  and  weak. 
The  winters  are  therefore  very  cold,  especially  in  the 

1 The  northern  lights  are  called  the  aurora  borealis.  The  Southern  lights 
are  called  the  aurora  australis. 


•SEA SONS  OF  THE  HEAT  BELTS. 


21 


nortliern  half  of  the  belt,  where  snow  covei’s  the  ground 
for  several  months  eacli  year,  and  where  heavy  frosts  are 
common  in  the  late  spring  and  the  early  autumn. 

In  spring  and  summer  the  days  of  this  cool  belt  are 
long  and  the  sun’s  rays  are  not  very  slanting,  except  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  belt.  The  summers  thus  become 
very  warm,  especially  in  the  Southern  half  of  the  belt. 

In  the  cool  belt  of  the  south  there  is  not  much  land, 
and  the  climate  therefore  changes  but  little.  The  air  over 
the  oceans  remains  steadily  cool,  while  over  the  narrow 
lands  it  varies  only  from  warm  to  cool. 

Warm  Beits.  The  lands  in  the  northern  warm  belt  are 
wide,  but  the  days  and  nights  do  not  differ  greatly  in  length, 
and  the  sun’s  rays  are  never  very  slanting.  The  winters 
on  the  lands  are  cool  but  not  cold.  The  summers  are 
very  hot.  On  the  northern  oceans,  both  in  the  cool  and 
the  warm  beits,  the  change  of  seasons  is  much  less  than 
on  the  lands. 

The  winters  and  the  summers  of  the  lands 
in  the  Southern  warm  belt  are  well  marked,  but 
these  lands  are  small  compared  with  the  oceans  in 
the  same  belt.  The  change  of  seasons  is  greatest 
on  the  small  land  interiors,  and  least  near  the 
coasts  and  on  the  oceans. 

Hot  Belt.  In  the  hot  belt  the  slant  of  the 
sunshine  varies  but  little,  and  the  days  and  nights 
are  always  about  twelve  hours  long.  There  the 
change  of  seasons  is  very  slight,  and  there  is  no 
winter.  The  air  is  hot  nearly  all  the  year. 

The  line  of  greatest  heat  around  the  earth  is 
called  the  heat  equator.  It  shifts  north  and  south 
once  a year,  always  towards  the  places  where  the 
sunshine  is  strongest.  The  line  of  greatest  heat 
therefore  follows  the  movement  of  the  sun. 


of  tlie  year,  the 
heat  equator  moves 
slowly  southward 
aeross  the  same 
belt. 

The  heat  equator 
moves  farther  from 
the  true  equator  on 
the  lands  than  on 
the  sea,  because  the 
land  warms  much 
more  quickly  than 

Northern  Ughte.  the  water. 

As  the  heat  equator  shifts  north  and  south,  the  weather 
of  all  the  heat  beits  shifts  with  it,  back  and  forth  once  a 
year,  following  the  sun. 

During  our  summer,  hot  weather  spreads  into  the  northern 
warm  belt ; the  warm  weather  shifts  into  the  cool  belt ; the  cool 
weather  shifts  into  the  cold  belt;  the  cold  weather  dwindles  away 
and  perhaps  disappears  from  the  north  polar  region. 


Heat  Beits  and  thelr  Seasons.1 


In  all  the  heat  beits,  the  highlands  are  cooler  than  the 
lowlands.  Even  near  the  equator,  the  tops  of  very  high 
mountains  are  covered  with  snow  all  the  year. 


Range  ol  the  Heat  Equator. 


1 Figure  5 shows  the  plan  on  which  the 
above  map  of  the  Heat  Beits  is  made.  It  is 
as  if  the  places  on  the  globe  were  lifted  out- 
ward,  away  from  the  center  of  the  globe, 
and  drawn  upon  the  paper  cyiinder,  which 
is  then  cut  apart  and  spread  out  as  in  the 
above  map.  In  such  a map,  the  cold  and 
the  cool  beits  appear  much  too  large,  for 
the  polar  circles  are  stretched  to  the  full 
\ length  of  the  equator. 


Figure  5. 


The  positions  of  the  heat  equator  in  our  winter  and  our  summer 
are  shown  on  this  little  map.  The  Southern  edge  of  the  shaded 
belt  is  the  heat  equator  for  January.  The  northern  edge  is  the 
heat  equator  for  July.  Let  us  not  forget  that  our  winter  months 
are  the  summer  months  in  places  south  of  the  hot  belt. 

During  the  time  between  January  and  July, — the  first  half  of 
the  year,  — the  heat  equator  shifts  slowly  northward,  through  the 
entire  width  of  the  shaded  belt  on  the  map.  During  the  latter  half 


During  our  winter,  the  cold  weather  of  the  northern  cold  belt 
spreads  far  southward  over  the  cool  belt ; the  cool  weather  shifts  to  the 
warm  belt ; and  warm  weather  only  is  felt  at  the  border  of  the  hot  belt. 

South  of  the  equator,  the  opposite  changes  are  meanwhile  taking 
place.  When  the  warmer  weather  swings  northward  from  the 
equator,  the  cooler  weather  shifts  towards  that  line  from  regions 
south  of  it ; but  owing  to  the  smallness  of  the  Southern  lands  and 
the  vastness  of  the  oceans,  the  seasons  south  of  the  equator  do 
not  present  great  extremes  of  heat  or  cold. 


22 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


. and  is  marked  0°  on  the  maps.  See  colorecl  map  of  British 
Isles.  The  meridians  which  show  degrees  are  generally 
numbei’ed  from  1 to  180  east  from  Greenwich,  and  also 


27.  Latitude  and  Longitude. 

Every  circle,  both  large  and  small,  may  be  divided  into 
360  parts,  each  of  which  is  called  a degree.1 

How  many  degrees  are  there  in  one  fourth  of  a circle  ? 

In  half  a circle  ? In  one  sixth  of  a circle  ? 

The  distance  from  the  equator  to  either  pole  is 
ninety  degrees  (90°),  or  one  fourth  of  a great 
circle  running  north  and  south  around  the  earth. 

The  tropic  of  Cancer  is  23^°  north  of  the  equator, 
and  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  is  just  as  far  south  of 
the  equator. 

How  far  are  the  polar  circles  from  the  poles  ? How 
far  are  those  circles  from  the  equator  ? 

The  tropics  and  the  polar  circles  are  parallel 
with  the  equator,  and  are  therefore  called  parallels. 

We  may  think  of  other  parallels  at  1°,  10°,  30°, 
or  any  number  of  degrees  as  high  as  ninety,  from  the 
equator. 

Parallels  show  how  far  places  are  north  or  south  of  the  equator. 
Thus  the  city  of  New  Orleans  is  30°  north  of  the  equator, — 
written  30°  N.  That  city  is  at  one  third  the  distance  from  the 


equator  to  the  north  pole.  See  colored  map  of  North  America. 
There  are  many  other  places  on  the  same  parallel,  or  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  equator. 

All  places  on  any  one  of  the  north-and-south  lines 
running  from  pole  to  pole  have  midday  at  the  same  time. 
These  lines  are  therefore  called  me- 
ridians, meaning  midday  lines. 

We  may  think  of  any  number  of  me- 
ridians and  number  them,  beginning  with 
either  of  them.  The  line  with  which 
the  numbering  begins  is  called  the  prime 
meridian,  meaning  the  first. 

The  prime  meridian  most  com- 
monly  used  by  sailors  passes  through 
Greenwich,  near  London.  This  is 
known  as  the  meridian  of  Greenwich 

1 A 60th  part  of  a degree  is  called  a minute. 

A 60th  part  of  a minute  is  called  a second. 

Ten  degrees,  thirty  minutes  and  forty  seconds 
may  be  written  — 10°  30'  40". 


from  1 to  180  west.  These  numbers  count  the  degrees 
around  the  equator  or  the  parallels. 

New  Orleans  is  on  the  meridian  90°  west  of  Greenwich,  — 
written  90°  W.  Knowing  both  the  parallel  and  the  meridian  of 
that  city,  we  may  locate  it  at  90°  W.  and  30°  N. 

The  number  of  degrees  at  which  any  place 
lies  north  or  south  of  the  equator  is  called  the 
latitude  of  that  place.  The  number  of  degrees 
at  which  any  place  lies  east  or  west  of  a given 
prime  meridian  is  called  the  longitude  of  the 
place. 

Latitude  means  the  broad  way ; longitude  means  the 
long  way. 

In  ancient  times,  when  nearly  all  the  shipping  in  the 
world  was  on  the  Mediterranean  sea,  the  long  way  was 
east  and  west ; the  broad  way  was  north  and  south. 

What  is  the  latitude  of  New  Orleans  ? What  is  its 
longitude  ? Find  out  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
town  or  city  in  which  you  live. 

What  is  the  latitude  of  the  tropics  ? Of  the  polar  circles  ? 

28.  Winds  and  Rainfall. 

Winds.  Cold  air,  being  heavier  tlian  hot  air,  flows  to- 
wards  and  creeps  under  the  hot  air,  pushing  it  upwards. 

As  all  parts  of  the  earth  are  not  heated  alike,  the  air  is 
kept  in  motion.  Some  of  the  currents  of  air  move  along 
the  earth’s  surface,  and  others  flow  far  above  it.  The 
ivinds,  or  sur- 
face currents, 
are  the  more 
important  to 
know,  as  they 
gather  moist- 
ure  for  the 
lands  and  do  many  other  kinds  of  useful  work. 

Wide  currents  of  air  flow  into  the  hot  belt  from  the 
regions  on  both  sides.  If  the  earth  did  not  rotate,  each 
of  these  currents  would  flow  due  south  or  north,  towards 


WINDS  AND  RAINFALL. 


23 


the  heat  equator.  The  turning  of  the  fearth  on  its  axis 
turns  these  winds  westward,  so  that  they  flow  into  the 
hot  belt  from  the  northeast  and  the  southeast. 

These  winds  are  called  the  trade  winds.  On  the  oceans 
they  are  very  steady,  and  blow  with  little  change  by  day 
or  by  night.  The  trade  winds  are  seldom  interrupted  by 
bad  weather  or  storms. 

Every  wind  takes  the  name  of  the  di- 
rection  from  which  it  blows.  The  trade 
windsblow  from  an  easterly  direction  and 
are  therefore  called  easterly  winds. 

The  word  trade  (compare  tread ) once 
meant  a trail  or  path.  The  trade  winds 
took  their  name  from  the  steadiness  with 
which  they  follow  a path  across  the  sea, 
and  not  from  the  fact  that  they  are  help- 
ful  to  commerce  or  trade. 

Between  the  northeast  and  the 
southeast  trade  winds  there  is  a 
narrow  belt  where  the  winds  are 
weak  and  irregular,  often  dying 
away  to  a calm. 

Tliis  narrow  belt  of  weak  winds  lies 
along  the  heat  equator  and  shifts  north 
and  south  with  it.  This  belt  is  the  region  where  the  air  from 
the  trade  winds  becomes  hottest  and  lightest  and  is  therefore 
slowly  lifted  up  into  the  upper  atmosphere. 


on  the  way.  Lowlands  in  the  path  of  these  winds  are 
generally  dry,  but  the  windward  sides  of  highlands  in  the 
trade  wind  beits  receive  abundant  rainfall.1 

When  air  rises  to  cross  highlands,  it  expands  and  cools.  Some 
of  its  vapor  may  then  be  condensed  into  clouds  which  inay  yield 
rainfall  on  the  slopes  of  the  highlands. 

Some  of  the  great  deserts  in  the  world 
are  lowlands  in  the  path  of  the  trade  winds. 
In  desert  regions  the  winds  gather  so  much 
dust  that  the  sky  is  pale-blue  or  even  gray. 

There  is  a very  large  amount  of 
vapor  in  the  equatorial  belt  of  weak 
winds,  and  almost  every  afternoon 
or  evening,  when  the  warmer  air 
rises  most  actively,  rains  pour  down, 
with  thunderstorms  and  squalls. 
This  rainy  belt  is  called  the  equa- 
torial rain  belt. 

The  rains  of  the  equatorial  belt 
on  the  land  often  occur  late  at  night, 
as  if  condensed  by  the  cooling  of  the 
tops  of  the  clouds  which  last  over 
from  the  afternoon. 

So  much  rain  falls  in  the  equatorial  rain  belt  that  the  surface 
water  of  the  oceans  in  this  belt  is  a little  less  salt  than  the  oceans 
under  the  drying  trade  winds. 


General  Plan  of  the  Winds. 

(The  dotted  areas  indicate  rain.) 


Outside  the  trade  wind  path,  the  winds  of  the  warm 
and  the  cool  beits  vary  in  direction  from  time  to  time  and 
are  often  stormy,  but  they  blow  mostly  from  the  west 
and  are  therefore  called  the  westerly  winds. 

Between  the  westerly  winds  and  the  trade  winds 
there  are  weak,  irregular  winds  that  generally  have 
dry  weather. 

The  storms  of  the  westerly  wind  beits 
are  great  wliirls,  or  eddies,  that  drift  along 
to  the  eastward  over  the  sea  and  the  land. 

In  these  eddying  winds  are  broad  areas  of 
clouds,  often  yielding  rain  or  snow. 

The  round  map  on  this  page  illustrates  some  of 
the  eddying  storms  on  their  way  across  the  cool 
and  the  warm  beits  on  both  sides  of  the  equator. 

In  the  cold  beits,  the  winds  are  variable  and 
often  stormy.  They  generally  blow  in  about  the 
same  direction  as  the  trade  winds,  — most  fre- 
quently  from  the  northeast  in  the  north  polar 
region,  and  from  the  southeast  in  the  south  polar 
region.  These  are  called  polar  winds. 

/ Rainfall.  When  the  air  is  cooled  it  can- 
not hold  so  'much  vapor  as  when  warmer. 

When  cooled  enough,  the  vapor  in  it  forms 
clouds,  often  with  rain  or  snow.  When 
the  air  grows  warmer  it  can  hold  more  vapor,  and  no 
clouds  then  form  in  it. 

The  trade  winds  blow  towards  the  heat  equator  and 
therefore  do  not  give  out  rainfall  unless  they  are  chilled 


On  highlands  and  on  windward  coasts  the  rainfall  from 
the  storms  of  the  westerly  winds  is  very  heavy.  Far 
inland  the  rainfall  is  much  lighter. 


Eddying  Storm  movlng  eastward  across  the  United  States. 


The  above  map  shows  a storm  eddy  Crossing  our  country.  As 
the  cloudy  and  rainy  eddy  drifts  eastward,  clear  weather  follows  it. 

1 The  term  rainfall  includes  rain,  snow,  hail  and  all  other  forms  of 
falling  water  or  ice. 


Note.  — The  arrowheads  show  that  the  winds  are  eddying  towards  the  storm  center,  where  the  dark  shading 
shows  the  rain  area,  and  the  lighter  shading  the  cloud  area.  The  winds,  rains  and  clouds  are  whirling  eastward. 
The  small  map  on  this  page  shows  several  of  these  storm  eddies.  See  maps  on  the  next  page  also. 


24 


WINDS  AND  RAINS  OF  WINTER  AND  SUMMER. 


The  winds  in  an  eddy  whirl  faster  than  the  storm  center  moves 
forward  in  its  path.  Waves  caused  by  the  whirling  winds  run 
ahead  of  the  storm  and  often  give  warning  of  its  approach. 


Winds  and  Rains  of  January  — Northern  Winter. 

The  westerly  winds  blowing  inland  from  over  the 
oceans  are  neither  hot  in  summer  nor  cold  in  winter. 

The  great  bodies  of  water  over  which  they  blow,  and  from 
which  they  get  their  moisture  and  warmth,  have  nearly 
the  same  temperature  both  in  winter  and  in  summer. 

The  westerly  winds,  therefore,  give  an  even  temperature 
to  the  western  coasts  of  the 


as  it  goes  south.  Sucli  places  have  two  wet  seasons  and  two  dry 
seasons  yearly. 

Lowlands  that  are  reached  by  the  equatorial  rain  belt  when  it  is 

farthest  north  or  south  have  a 
short  wet  season  and  a long  dry 
season.  Wetweatherprevailsonly 
while  the  rain  belt  is  over  tliese 
places.  Dry  weather  comes  when 
the  rain  belt  moves  away  and  the 
trade  winds  prevail. 

In  the  lowlands  having  the 
single  rainy  season  each  year, 
grass  and  flowers  grow  in  abun- 
dance  while  the  wet  weather 
lasts,  but  in  the  dry  months  tho 
vegetation  withers  away.  In  some 
places  the  ground  then  becomes 
parched  and  dry,  like  a desert. 

The  trade  winds  blow  towards 
the  heat  equator.  Where  these 
winds  cross  the  true  equator  to 
reach  the  heat  equator,  they  change 
their  direction,  as  shown  on  the 
maps. 

When  the  heat  equator  reaches 
Southern  Asia,  the  southeast  trade 
winds  cross  the  equator  and  flow 
as  Southwest  winds  towards  that  continent.  While  the  heat 
equator  is  in  the  south,  the  northeast  trade  winds  blow  from 
Asia,  and  on  Crossing  the  equator  become  northwest  winds,  as 
shown  on  the  above  map. 

Winds  that  reverse  their  direction  in  opposite  seasons 
are  called  monsoons,  or  season  winds. 


continents  in  the  warm  and 
the  cool  beits. 


The  western  coast  of  our  own 
country  owes  the  mildness  of  its 
climate  to  the  westerly  winds  from 
over  the  Pacific  ocean.  Western 
Europe  also  has  a more  even 
temperature  than  the  inland 
regions  farther  east. 


29.  Winds  and  Rains  of 
Winter  and  Summer. 

The  equatorial  rain  belt  lies\ 
along  the  heat  equator  and ' 
shifts  north  and  south  with 
it.  This  rain  belt  is  north 
of  the  true  equator  in  July, 
and  mostly  south  of  it  in 
January.  When  the  heat 

equator  and  the  ram  belt  Winds  and  Rains  ol  July  — Northern  Summer. 

mo  ve  away  from^  a region, 

the  drying  trade-  wrpds  blow  there,  and  a dry  season  Since  the  beits  of  trade  winds  shift  north  and  south  at 
follows  the  wet  season.  about  the  same  time  that  the  heat  equator  shifts,  the 

Some  places  on  or  near  the  true  equator  are  visited  by  the  outer  borders  of  these  beits  are  farther  from  the  true 
rain  belt  twice  each  year,  — once  as  it  moves  north,  and  again  equator  in  summer  than  in  winter. 


OCEAN  CURRENTS. 


25 


During  the  northern  summer,  when  the  border  of  the  trade  wiud 
belt  is  farthest  north,  the  regions  south  of  the  equator  have  their 
winter,  and  therefore  the  Southern  border  of  the  trade  wind  belt 
is  then  nearest  the  equator.  As  the  Southern  summer  approaches, 
the  Southern  border  of  the  trade  wind  belt  moves  away  from  the 
equator. 

The  westerly  wind  beits  shift  north  and  south  with 
the  beits  of  trade  winds.  As  a result,  some  places  feel 
the  steady  trade  winds  in  summer  and  the  stormy 
westerly  winds  in  winter.  Such  places  have  dry  summers 
and  wet  winters. 

In  winter  a large  part  of  the  west  coast  of  North  America  and 
all  the  west  coast  of  Europe  receive  rainfall  from  the  stormy 
westerly  winds.  In  summer  the  trade  winds  extend  over  the 
Southern  parts  of  these  coasts  and  cause  drouths. 

' Parts  of  the  west  coasts  of  the  three  Southern  continents  have 
similar  changes  from  winter  to  summer. 

The  westerly  winds  and 
their  storm  eddies  are  strong- 
est  in  the  winter  season. 

That  is  the  time  when  the 
coasts  and  the  mountains  on 
which  they  blow  receive  the 
most  rainfall,  — rain  or  snow. 

The  western  coast  lands  of 
continents  in  the  cool  and 
the  warm  beits,  therefore, 
have  their  heaviest  rainfall 
in  winter. 

During  the  summer  season, 
the  westerly  winds  are  less 
active  and  their  storms  are 
weaker  and  fewer. 

In  winter  the  air  over  the 
northern  continents  is  cold 
and  heavy.1  In  that  season, 
therefore,  the  winds  from 
over  the  sea  do  not  reach  the  interior  of  the  continents 
so  easily  as  in  summer  when  the  air  over  the  land  is  warm 
and  light.  For  this  reason,  the  interior  regions  of  the 
northern  continents  receive  their  rainfall  chiefly  in 
summer. 

30.  Ocean  Currents. 

Winds  blowing  day  after  day  for  a long  time  against 
waves  in  the  sea  cause  the  surface  water  to  drift  slowly 
along  and  thus  form  ocean  currents.  These  currents  move 
much  more  slowly  than  the  winds  or  the  waves. 

In  each  ocean  the  currents  move  in  the  general  direction 
of  the  winds  over  them.  The  trade  winds  blow  tfiej^pean 

1 The  places  of  greatest  cold  in  winter  are  not  over  the  Arctic  ocean,  but 
at  some  distance  southward  from  the  Arctic  coasts  of  Asia  and  North 
America.  In  that  season  therefore  the  polar  winds  do  not  flow  inland  over 
the  continents,  to  any  great  extent,  but  are  pushed  out  from  the  lands.  In 
summer,  when  the  inland  regions  are  very  warm  and  when  the  air  over 
them  is  light,  the  polar  winds  reach  farthest  into  the  northern  lands. 


currents  westward,  and  the  westerly  winds  blow  them 
eastward.  The  lands  prevent  the  currents  from  moving 
round  and  round  the  earth  and  require  them  to  circle 
around,  or  eddy,  in  each  ocean. 

The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  have  eddies  both  north  and 
south  of  the  equator.  The  Indian  ocean  has  a large  eddy  south  of 
the  equator,  but  the  ocean  currents  north  of  the  equator  flow  back 
and  forth  with  the  season  winds,  or  monsoons,  which  prevail  over 
that  ocean. 

The  ocean  eddies  north  of  the  equator  move  slowly  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  hands  of  a clock  turn.  The  ocean  eddies  south 
of  the  equator  move  in  the  opposite  direction,  or  against  the  hands 
of  a clock. 

In  the  Southern  cool  belt  the  oceans  spread  all  the  way  round 
the  earth.  There  the  drifting  waters  on  the  Southern  sides  of  the 
Pacific,  Atlantic  and  Indian  eddies  unite  to  form  a great  current 
sweeping  slowly  towards  the  east.  This  current  flows  entirely 


around  the  Antarctic  ocean  and  may  be  called  the  Antarctic  eddy. 
It  receives  cold  water  from  the  south  polar  ocean. 

Ocean  currents  that  move  slowly  over  a broad  surface  are  called 
drift  currents.  These  seldom  flow  more  than  a mile  an  hour.  Cur- 
rents that  are  driven  through  narrow  passages  may  move  three  or 
even  four  miles  an  hour.  These  rapid  currents  are  called  streams. 

Part  of  the  water  of  the  North  Atlantic  eddy  flows 
between  the  island  of  Cuba  and  the  mainland  of  North 
America.  The  current  issuing  from  this  passage  is  called 
the  Gulf  stream.  Joining  the  rest  of  the  eddy,  the  Gulf 
stream  spreads  as  a broad  drift  far  to  the  northeast.  Part 
of  this  drift  turns  back  southward  into  the  hot  belt,  and 
part  branches  towards  the  Arctic  ocean. 

The  large  brancli  of  the  North  Atlantic  eddy  which  runs 
northeastward  into  the  Arctic  ocean  bears  much  warmth 
to  it.  A cold  current  from  the  Arctic  ocean  flows  south- 
ward along  the  northeast  coast  of  North  America. 

As  we  study  the  different  continents  we  shall  learn  of  other  cur- 
rents that  warm  or  cool  the  air  flowing  towards  the  land. 


Chart  oi  the  Ocean  Currents. 


26 


THE  MOON  AND  THE  TIDES. 


The  Bore  or  Tldal  Wave  (Seine  River,  France). 

It  is  important  to  know  when  high  or  low  tides  occur  in 
different  harbors,  for  the  tidal  currents  are  of  great  assistance  to 
vessels  såiling  in  or  out.  At  the  mouths  of  some  harbors  the 
water  at  low  tide  is  not  deep  enough  for  vessels  to  epter.  They 
must  then  wait  for  the  high  tide. 


31.  The  Moon  and  the  Tides. 


Tvvice  each  day,1  the  ocean  slow  ly  rises  and  falls  on  its 
shores.  For  about  six  hours,  the  water  creeps  up  the 
beaches  and  against  the  foot  of  clilfs. 

During  the  next  six  hours,  it  slowly  settles 
back.  This  rise  and  fall  of  the  water  is 
called  the  tide.  The  tide  is  not  felt  at  sea 
and  is  seldom  very  strong  on  headlands, 
but  in  narrowing  bays 
the  water  may  rise  ten, 
twenty  or  thirty  feet.2 

There  is  a tide  on 
the  side  of  the  earth  to- 
wards  the  moon  and  an- 


Tides 
on  the 


The  moon  goes  round  the  earth  from  west  to  east  in  about  a 
month.  The  long  diagram  on  this  page  shows  the  path  of  the 
earth  and  the  moon  for  nearly  one  month,  on  their  way  round  the 
sun.  The  larger  circles,  half  light  and  half  dark,  indicate  the  posi- 

tionof  the  earth  each  day; 
while  the  smaller  circles 
indicate  the  position  of 
the  moon.  The  days  of  the 
month  are  numbered,  — 
1,  2,  3,  etc. 

The  groups  of  arrows 
pointing  downward  repre- 
sent  the  sun’s  rays  and 
show  why  the  upper  sides 
of  the  earth  and  the  moon 
in  the  diagram  are  light. 
At  the  outset,  the  dark  face  of  the  new  moon  is 
turned  towards  the  earth. 

The  little  arrow  flying  upwards  between  days  7 
and  8 shows  the  point  where  one  half  of  the  light 
side  of  the  moon  may  be  seen  from  the  earth. 

The  arrow  pointing  upwards  near  the  figure 
which  marks  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  day,  shows  the  position  of 
full  moon , when  all  the  light  side  is  turned  towards  the  earth. 
From  this  time  on,  the  moon  shows  less  and  less  of  its  light  side, 
till  the  new  moon  again  appears. 


Tides  cause  currents  to  flow  in  and  out  of  bays.  Tidal 
currents  help  to  scour  the  mud  and  sand  from  the  bottom 
of  shallow  bays  and  to  wash  the  rock  waste  farther  away 
from  the  shores.  Twice  a day  these  currents  carry  sea 
water  into  and  out  of  the  bays  and  thus  keep  them  pure. 

The  flowing  in  of  the  tide  is  called  its  Jiood ; the  flow- 
ing  out  is  its  ebb. 


Seacoast. 


other  on  the  opposite  side.  The  tides  are  caused  chiefly 
by  the  attraction  of  the  moon,  but  partly  also  by  the  sun 


At  all  times  there  are  two  faint  bulges  of  high  tides  whose  broad 
wave-forms  travel  swiftly  across  the  oceans.  In  the  open  oceans  the 
tides  follow  the  movements  of  the  moon,  but  on  reaching  the  shallow 
waters  near  the  margin  of  the  lands,  the  tides  increase  in  height 
and  advance  much  more  slowly,  — lagging  far  behind  the  moon. 

As  the  earth  turns  on  its  axis,  the  moon  seems  to  revolve  round 

it  from  east  to  west.  The  moon 
holds  in  place  the  great  tidal 
wave-forms,  while  the  earth 
turns  on  its  axis.  Thus,  it  is 
the  turning  of  the  earth  which 
makes  the  two  tides  appear 
daily,  just  as  it  makes  the  sun 
rise  and  set. 

If  you  will  note  the  time 
of  the  moon’s  setting,  you  will 
find  that  it  is  nearly  an  hour 
later  each  day,  sliowing  that  the  moon’s  position  is  farther  east 
each  successive  night  at  a given  hour,  and  that  the  earth  must 
rotate  almost  an  hour  longer  than  a day,  in  order  to  make  the 
moon  set.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  tides  are  nearly  an  hour 
later  each  day 


The  Crescent  Moon. 


1 More  exactly,  in  24  hours  and  50  minutes.  ln  some  narrowing  bays  and  river  mouths,  the  tide  forms  a high 

Some  places  have  but  one  tide  a day,  and  others  have  more  than  two  wave  followed  by  several  smaller  waves.  These  roll  in  with  great 

tides  in  that  time.  • speed  and  often  do  much  damage.  Such  a wave  formed  by  the 

2 In  rare  cases  it  rises  sixty  feet.  tide  is  called  a bore. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


32.  North  America.1 

North  America  is  broad  in  the  north,  but  it  tapers 
towards  the  south.  This  continent  covers  nearly  one 
twentieth  of  the  earth’s  surface.2 

North  America  consists  mainly  of  a great  western 
highland,  a lesser  eastern  highland  and  a central  plain. 

This  continent  crosses  the  warm  and  cool  beits,  and 
also  enters  the  cold  helt  on  the  north  and  the  hot  belt  on 
the  south.  Only  a small  part  of  the  continent  is  in  the 
hot  or  the  cold  regions.  Far  the  greater  part  is  in  the 
beits  having  cold  or  cool  winters  and  warm  or  hot 
summers. 

In  the  warm  belt  the  winter  is  short  and  mild,  but 
northward  the  cold  season  lengthens,  till  near  the  Arctic 
coast  there  are  only  a few  weeks  of  mild  weather  each 
summer.  The  extreme  north  of  the  continent  is  cold  and 
dreary. 

1 The  Map  Studies  on  page  29  are  to  precede  this  lesson.  Refer  often  to 
the  relief  maps.  Locate  every  place  named  in  the  text. 

2 The  area  of  the  earth’s  surface  is  about  200,000,000  square  miles, — 
more  exactly,  197,000,000. 


Only  the  southernmost  part  of  North  America  is 
reached  in  summer  by  the  equatorial  rains.  The  high- 
land of  Mexico  receives  rains  from  the  trade  winds  on 
its  eastern  slopes,  but  the  western  slopes  are  not  well- 
watered.  The  wide  middle  portion  of  the  continent  is  in 
the  path  of  the  eddying  storms  of  the  westerly  winds. 

The  westerly  winds  from  over  the  North  Pacific  eddy  give  a 
mild  and  even  climate  to  the  greater  part  of  the  west  coast  of 
North  America,  for  the  seasons  over  the  broad  ocean  change  but 
little. 

In  the  interior  of  the  continent,  far  from  the  sea,  the  summers 
are  very  warm  and  the  winters  very  cold:  There  the  change  of 

seasons  is  much  greater  than  near  the  coast. 

On  the  east  coast  the  winter  weather  is  mild  when  the  southeast 
wind  blows  from  over  the  Gulf  stream,  but  is  very  chilling  when 
the  northeast  wind  from  over  the  Arctic  current  reaches  the  land 
or  when  cold  air  flows  out  from  the  interior  of  the  continent, 

When  the  cold  heavy  air  of  winter  covers  the  interior  of  North 
America,  not  much  moist  air  can  flow  in,  and  the  inland  rainfall  is 
therefore  not  heavy.  When  the  warm  light  air  of  summer  spreads 
over  the  interior,  the  moist  winds  from  the  sea  flow  inland  and 
give  plentiful  rains,  except  on  the  lowlands  among  the  western 
mountains  and  on  the  plains  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky 
mountains. 


RELIEF  MAP  OP  NORTH  AMERICA. 


MAP  STUDIES. 


29 


0 v°^ 

pt  <v1'  b 


33.  Map  Studies.1 


On  the  relief  map  of  North  America  locate  the  place  where  you 
live.  See  opposite  page. 

What  oceans  border  on  North  America?  VVliat  continent 
adjoins  it  on  the  south  ? In  what  direction  is  Europe  from  North 
America  ? Which  part  of  our  continent  lies  nearest  Asia  ? 

Turn  to  the  map  of  the  heat  beits  and  tell  what  you  can  about 
the  seasons  in  North  America.  See  map  on  page  21. 

Which  part  of  North  America  is  in  the  path  of  the  westerly 
winds  ? Of  the  trade  winds  ? See  ma ps  on  page  2 4. 

In  what  direction  does  the  Rocky  Mountain  highland  extend  ? 
Along  which  side  of  the  continent  does  it  lie  ? Which  part  of  this 
highland  looks  the  liighest  ? The  widest  ? 

Into  what  gulf  does  the  Colorado  river  fiow?  Name  a large 
river  flowing  into  Bering  sea. 

Where  is  the  Appalachian  highland  ? In  what  direction  does 
it  extend  ? Is  it  higher  or  lower  than  the  Rocky  Mountain  high- 
land ? Is  it  longer  or  shorter  ? Wider  or  narrower  ? 

On  which  side  of  the  Rocky  mountaius  are  there  vast  plains  ? 
Name  the  largest  river  flowing  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  What 
liighlands  are  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  Mississippi  basin  ? 
Which  part  of  the  central  plain  is  drained  by  the  Mississippi 
river  and  its  branches  ? 

1 For  drawing  and  modeling,  see  guide  map  in  the  Supplement. 


Note  : Whenever  the  name  of 
a city  or  a country  is  used,  locate 
it  at  once  on  the  colored  map  of 
the  continent  which  is  being 
studied. 

All  places  named  in  the  text 
can  be  found  either  on  the  kei/ 
maps  or  on  the  simple  colored 
maps  in  the  body  of  the  book.  The 
maps  in  the  Supplement  probably 
contain  the  names  of  all  places  to 
which  you  will  need  to  refer  in 
anv  part  of  your  school  work. 


What  river  forms  the  outlet  of  the  Great  L akes  r What  high- 
lands  are  separated  by  the  valley  of  this  river  ?..  ' . 

Which  portion  of  the  central  plain  is  in  the  basin  of  the  Nelson 
river  ? , Into  what  bay  does  this  river  flow  ? 

Describe  the  course  of  the  Mackenzie  river.  Which  part  of  the 
central  plain  does  it  drain  ? 

What  bodies  of  water  partly  surround  the  peninsula  of  Florida  ? 
The  peninsula  of  Labrador  ? The  peninsula  of  Alaska  ? The 
peninsula  of  Lower  California  ? 

Sketch  the  general  outline  of  North  America, — using  only  tliree 
straight  lines.  In  what  general  direction  does  the  east  coast 
extend?  The  west  coast?  The  north  coast?  Which  coast  is 

the  longest  ? 

Draw  the  north  coast  of  this 
continent ; the  west  coast ; the 
east  coast.  Which  is  the  most 
irregular  ? 


Maps  showing  the  Posltlon  ol  North  America  among  the  Continents  and  Oceans. 


30 


THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


rious  ranges  lying  along 
this  plateau  are  known 


34.  The  Rocky  Mountains.1 

The  widest  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  highland  is 
about  midway  between  the  isthmus  of  Panama  and  Bering 
strait. 

In  this  broad  portion,  lofty  ranges  almost  inclose  a vast 
plateau,  about  a mile  above  sea  level  and  several  hundred 
miles  wide.  The  va- 
the  eastern  side  of 
as  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains. This  chain 
extends  far  north- 
ward  into  the 
basin  of  the 
Yukon  river, 
and  southward 
to  the  Rio 
Grande, 
at  the 


is  spread  over  the  lower  land.  The  plains  along  the  eastern  base  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  are  made  of  the  waste  which  in  past  ages  has 
been  washed  from  the  great  range.  Many  of  the  Rocky  mountain 
peaks  are  over  two  miles  and  a half  high. 

Where  are  the  Laramie  plains  ? See  map  on  page  32.  These 
plains  are  in  a high  plateau  region  that  interrupts  the  Rocky 
mountain  chain.  The  route  of  the  first  railroad  built  across  our 
country  leads  over  the  Laramie  plains. 

South  of  the  Laramie  plains  the  Rocky  mountains  con- 

sist  of  parallel 


ranges,  running  mostly 

Yellowstone  PaUs.  n0rth  and  S01lth;  AlJtOUg 

these  lie  many  high  plains 
known  as  parks.  The  parks  are  lofty  basins  sliut  in  by 
ranges  on  riearly  all  sides. 


Among  these  are  the  North,  the  Middle,  the  South,  and  the  San 
Luis  parks.  Each  of  these  contains  several  hundred  square  miles 
of  land  that  is  quite  level  and  is  covered  with  rock-layers  made  of 
waste  washed  from  the  surrounding  mountains.  Some  parts  are 
wooded,  and  other  parts  are  grassy  or  rocky. 

The  parks  are  drained  by  rivers  that  have  cut  deep  and  narrow 
valleys,  or  canyons,  through  the  ranges.  The  sources  of  the  Platte, 


Mammoth  Hot  Springs. 


place  where  that  river  forms  the 
boundary  between  our  country  and 
Mexico. 


In  the  Rocky  mountains,  as  in  all  high  mountains,  bare  crags 
stand  out  near  the  summits,  and  coarse  stony  waste  creeps  down 
the  slopes  into  the  Valleys.  The  finer  waste  is  washed  farther  and 


1 The  surface  of  the  United  States,  occupying  a broad  belt  across  the 
middle  part  of  North  America,  is  treated  much  more  at  length  than  any 
other  part  of  the  earth,  not  only  because  we  ought  to  know  the  geography 
of  our  own  country,  but  also  because  the  full  knowledge  of  the  surface  and 
resources  of  our  land  affords  the  best  key  to  its  history. 


THE  ROCKY  MOUNTAINS. 


31 


the  Arkansas,  the  Colorado  and  the  Rio^Qjande  are  in  this 
park~region.  Railroads  through  this  rough  country  often 
folTow  the  canyons,  but  the  wagon  roads  generally  lead  over 
the  passes  in  the  mountains. 

Among  the  famous  mountains  of 
this  region  are  Pikes  peak  and  Longs 
peak.  These  rocky  masses,  patched 
with  snow,  may  be  clearly  seen  from 
the  plains  on  the  east  of  the  great 
chain. 


The  Wasatch  range  rises 
along  the  western  part  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  The  Colo- 
rado river  receives  streams 
from  the  east  slope  of  the  Wa- 
satch range. 

From  the  region  of  the  Lara- 
mie  plains  the  Rocky  mountains 
bend  towards  the  northwest 
and  there  the  great  western 
highland  of  the  continent  be- 
comes  narrower. 

Where  is  the  Wind  River  range  ? 

This  high  range  contains  sources  of 
streams  that  belong  in  three  large 
river  systems,  — the  Colorado,  the 
Columbia  and  the  Mississippi.  'J.  'J. 

Locate  the  Y 

park  has  been  reserved  for  the 
and  is  therefore  called  a “ national 
park.”  It  is  famous  for  its  geysers, 
hot  springs,  falls  and  canyons. 

Some  of  the  geysers  throw  streams 
of  hot  water  more  than  two  hundred 
feet  into  the  air.  Steam  escapes 
with  loud  roaring  and  makes 
the  ground  tremble.  The  water 
in  some  of  these  fountains  falls 
back  into  basins,  to  be  belched  forth 
again.  In  other  geysers  the  water  is 
broken  into  fine  spray  and  is  carried 
away  by  the  wind. 

In  many  basins  the  water  does 
not  spout  but  only  rises  and  forms 
pools,  or  hot  springs.  These  often 
overflow  and  make  terraces  of  stone, 
like  those  in  one  of  the  pictures  on 
the  opposite  page. 

In  Yellowstone  park  is  a small 
body  of  water  known  as  Two-Ocean 
pond.  In  ordinary  weather  this 
pond  finds  an  outlet  to  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  through  branches  of  the 
Mississippi  river;  but  in  times  of 
heavy  rains,  part  of  the  overflow 
from  the  pond  reaches  the  Pacific 
ocean,  by  way  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers. 

Two-Ocean  pond  is  on  the  continental  divide, — the 
divide  between  the  slopes  which  descend  to  the 
Atlantic  ocean  and  the  Pacific. 


The  rainfall  is  not  very  hea^y  on  those  parts  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  which  are  in  the  United  States, 
because  the  great  chain  lies  far  away  from  the  sea, 

and  much  of  the  moisture 
brought  by  the  eddying  storms 
of  the  westerly  winds  from 
over  the  Pacific  ocean  is  lost 
on  high  ranges  near  the  Pacific 
coast. 


The  rainfall  in  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, as  in  other  parts  of  the  earth, 
is  heavier  on  the  ranges  than  on  the 
neighboring  lower  lands.  Streams 
from  the  mountains  feed  many  of 
the  rivers,  and  canals  from  these 
are  often  led  out  to  water  the 


In  summer,  thunderstorms  some- 
times  start  over  the  high  mountains 
and  drift  eastward,  watering  the 
plains  east  of  the  ranges.  Snow 
often  falls  on  the  mountains,  while 
rain  is  falling  on  the  lower  lands. 


Only  small  parts  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  are  forest- 
clad,  but  even  the  light  sup- 
ply is  valuable,  because  the 
lower  lands  of  this  region  are 
almost  treeless,  on  account  of 
the  dryness. 

This  deep  - worn  highland 
yields  more  silver  ore  than 
any  other  part  of  our  country. 
Gold  is  another  valuable 
product.  The  city  of  Den- 
ver has  had  very  rapid 
"growth  because  it  is  in  the 
midst  of  a great  grazing 
country  On  the  plains  and  is  near 
rich  mines  in  the  mountains. 

Northward  from  the  border 
of  the  United  States,  the 
Rocky  mountains  are  not  very 
far  from  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
therefore  receive  plentiful  rain- 
fall. For  a great  distance  the 
range  is  still  lofty.  Its  summits 
are  heavily  snow-clad,  and  large 
glaciers  are  found  on  its  slopes. 
The  mountains,  as  well  as  the 
lower  parts  of  the  highland, 
are  heavily  wooded. 


Owing  to  the  vegetation  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  in  Canada,  ore-bearing' rocks  are 
not  so  easily  found  there  as  in  our  own  country. 


32 


THE  SIERRA  NEVADA. 


Copyright,  I 895,  by  Alex  E.  Frye.  Key  to  Relief  Map  on  pages  34  and  35.1 


35.  The  Sierra  Nevada. 

Where  are  the  mountains  tliat  form  the  Sierra  Nevada  ? This 
name  rneans  snowy  range. 


Ages  ago  the  Sierra  Nevada  was  greatly  worn  down.  When  the 
surface  reached  the  deeply-buried  layers,  veins  of  rock  containing 
gold  were  then  uncovered.  There  were  grains  and  nuggets  of  gold 
in  the  waste  which  was  washed  from  the  mountains  and  wliich 


The  lofty  Sierra  Nevada  rises  in  steep  slopes  from  the 
plateau  on  the  east,  bnt  descends  in  gentle  slopes  to  the 
low  valley  plain  on  the  west.  This 
range  receives  heavy  winter  snowfalls 
from  the  storm  s of  the  westerly  winds. 

In  summer,  the  rains  are  not  plentiful, 
because  the  trade  winds  then  reach 
farther  north,  and  storms  are  fewer. 

The  summer  streams  from  the 
Sierra  are  fed  by  the  melting  snow. 

The  broad  uplands  of  the  west 
slope  of  the  range  are  heavily 
wooded.  The  east  slope  is  drier, 
and  its  forests  are  therefore  lighter. 

Most  of  the  Sierra  forests  consist  of  cone 
trees,  — pine,  spruce  and  fir.  They  supply 
lumber  to  the  cities  and  towns  in  the  low- 
lands  west  of  the  range.  On  the  mountain 
slopes  are  found  groups  of  the  famous  "big 
trees.”  Some  of  these  are  more  than  a 
thousand  years  old  and  have  a height  of  over 
three  hundred  feet.  They  are  the  largest  trees  known  in  the 
world.  Mt.  Wliitney,  near  the  Southern  end  of  the  range,  is  higher 
than  any  known  peak  in  the  Rocky  mountains. 


formed  beds  of  gravel  along  their  western  base. 

In  that  ancient  time,  volcanoes  among  the 
mountains  poured  forth  lava  that  flowed 
down  the  valleys  and  buried  the  gravel  of 
the  river  beds.  In  the  ages  which  have  since 
passed,  the  mountain  region  has  again  been 
uplifted  and  the  volcanoes  and  the  lava-flows 
have  been  greatly  worn  away.  New  valleys 
have  been  cut,  and  in  many  places  the  gold- 
bearing  gravel  under  the  lava  has  been  laid 
bare.  The  gravel  beds  are  now  dug  out  for 
the  gold  which  they  contain. 

The  picture  on  page  12tUdiows  how  miners 
sometimes  use  water  to  wash  down  a gravel 
bed.  The  water  forces  the  gravel  down  a 
trough,  across  the  bottom  of  which  are  small 
cleats  or  grooves  holding  quicksilver.  The 
gold  is  gathered  by  the  quicksilver,  and  the 
gravel  is  washed  away. 

1 Key  to  figures  and  letters  on  the  map : The 
heights  of  peaks  are  given  in  the  Supplement. 

1.  Yellowstone  Park.  4.  South  Park. 


California  “ Big  Tree.” 


H = Mt.  Ilood. 

J = Mt.  Whitney. 
L = Longs  Peak. 


2.  North  Park. 

3.  Middle  Park. 

M = Mitchells  Peak. 
P=  Pikes  Peak. 

R = Mt.  Rainier. 


5.  San  Luis  Park. 

D = Death  Valley. 
S=Mt.  Shasta. 
V=Mt.  San  Francisco. 
Y=Yosemite  Valley. 


THE  CASCADE  RANGE. 


33 


The  lava-flows  blocked  many  river  valleys  and  thus  formed 
lakes.  In  time,  many  of  these  were  drained  and  their  beds  became 
meadows,  making  the  best  farming  lands  now  to  be  found  among 
the  mountains.  One  river  has  cut  a deep  valley  from  east  to  west 
aeross  the  northern  part  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Elsewliere  the  range 
can  be  crossed  only  over  high  passes. 

The  Yosemite  valley  is  on  the  Pacific  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  See  vicip  on  page  32.  The  depth 
of  tliis  wonderful  valley  is  so  great,  and 
its  sides  are  so  steep,  that  hundreds 
of  people  visit  it  every  year. 

In  some  places,  its  steep 
sides  are  about  half  a mile 
in  height.  Beautiful 
streams  from  the  upland 
leap  over  cliffs  into  the  valley. 

In  wet  seasons,  one  small  river  falls 
more  than  a fourth  of  a mile,  but  during 
summer  drouths  it  often  dries  up. 

Southward  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  broken 
ranges  extend  into  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California. 
This  peninsula  is  in  the  dry  belt  along  the  outer  border  of 
the  trade  winds  and  is  too  far  south  to  feel  the  westerly 
storms,  even  in  winter. 

36.  The  Cascade  Range. 

From  the  great  volcanic  cone  of  Mt.  Shasta,  the  Cascade 
range  extends  far  nortliward.  As  a wliole,  it  is  not  so 
high  as  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

A large  part  of  the  Cascade  range  is  built  of  lava,  and 
the  highest  peaks  in  this  range  are  volcanoes.  The  sides 
of  most  of  them  are  deeply  worn,  showing 
that  a long  time  has  passed  since  their  lava 
flowed.  Some  of  the  peaks  bear  large 
glaciers.  Mt.  Hood  is  one  of  the  highest. 


westerly  winds  reach  this  range  at  all  seasons,  but  the 
winter  is  the  time  of  heaviest  rainfall,  as  on  all  other  coast 
regions  in  the  path  of  the  westerly  winds.  The  mountains 
are  covered  witli  forests  of  valuable  timber. 

The  Frazer  river  drains  a rugged  region  between 
the  Cascade  and  Rocky  mountains vF  Like  the 
Columbia  river,  the  Frazer  has  cut  a deep 
valley  through  the  Cascade  range. 

37.  The  Great  Basin. 

Between  the  W a- 
satch  range  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada  lies  a 
wide  plateau  region  known  as 
the  Great  Basin.  The  central  part 
is  almost  a mile  liigher  than  sea  level. 
The  surface  of  the  Great  Basin  is  broken  by 
many  north-and-south  ranges,  between  which  lie  long 
troughs  not  many  miles  in  width.  The  region  is  dry,  be- 
cause the  high  Sierra  Nevada  lies  along  its  windward  side. 

There  is  more  rain  on  the  mountains  than  in  the  troughs,  and 
streams  have  carved  many  valleys  in  the  steep  slopes  of  the  ranges. 
The  rock  waste  has  been  washed  into  the  troughs,  making  gravelly 
and  sandy  plains.  See  picture  at  the  bottom  of  page  36 

The  rainfall  being  light,  many  of  the  mountain  ranges  are  bare 
of  trees,  and  the  plains  are  almost  deserts.  In  these  plains,  there 
are  shallow  hollows,  or  sinks.  Winter  rains  flood  the  sinks  and 
thus  form  lakes,  but  summer  drouths  cause  the  lakes  to  shrink. 
Some  of  the  places  covered  by  lakes  in  winter  are  smootli  dry 
plains  in  summer.  In  these  desert  plains,  the  wind  drifts  the  sand 
into  dunes  which  often  cover  the  surface  for  many  miles. 


In  recent  years  a few  peaks  in  the  Cascade 
range  have  sent  out  small  jets  of  steam,  and  at 
least  two  craters  have  given  forth  showers  of 
ashes,  but  no  lava-flow  has  been  known  to  take 
place  since  white  men  first  went  to  the  region. 
The  lava  on  some  peaks  is  very  firm  and  has  flowed 
so  recently  that  it  has  hardly  begun  to  weather. 


At  the  place  where  the  Columbia  river 
breaks  through  the  Cascade  range,  the 
stream  has  cut  a gorge  down  almost  to  sea 
level,  draining  the  interior  country  where 
there  was  once  a large  lake.  This  deep 
gorge  lays  bare  the  edges  of  many  lava 
sheets  and  sliows  them  to  be  very  tliick. 

Rapids  break  the  flow  of  the  Columbia 
river,  at  the  place  where  it  passes  through 
the  range.  These  rapids  mark  the  limit  to  which  vessels 
can  ascend  from  the  sea. 

The  Cascade  range  is  so  far  north  that  even  in  summer 
the  trade  winds  do  not  reach  it.  The  storms  of  the 


Yosemite  Valley,  California. 


The  streams  of  the  Great  Basin  dry  up  on  the  plains 
or  enter  lakes  from  which  the  water  evaporates,  for  there 
is  not  enough  water  to  overflow  and  cut  valleys  in  the 
slopes  to  the  sea. 


Copyright,  1895,  by  Alex  E.  Frye. 


RELIEF  MÅP  OF  THE 


■ 


UNITED  STATES. 


36 


THE  GREAT  BAS  IR. 


Great  Salt  Lake, 
Utah. 


The  plains 
in  the  Great 
Basin  are  so  dry  that 
they  are  seldom 

covered  with  grass,  exeept  along  the  streams  running  from  the 
mountains.  Canals  have  been  made  to  lead  water  from  these 


Young  Mountains  or  TUted  Blocks,  — Nor  th  west  Part  ol  Basin  Region, 


streams  to  irrigate  parts  of  the  plains.  A few  cities  and  towns 
have  grown  up  along  the  streams  and  canals. 

Some  of  the  deep-worn  ranges  in  this  region  have  rich  mines  of 
gold  and  of  silver  ore.  These  have  led  ,;to  the  building  of  other 
small  cities  and  towns,  but  the  Basin  region  is  only  thinly  settled. 

The  streams  of  this  region,  like  nearly  all  other  streams  on 
the  earth,  wash  salt  from  the  soil.  The  salt  is  formed  by  the 
weathering  of  certain  kinds  of  rocks.  The  amount  of  salt  carried 
by  a river  during  an  entire  season  may  be  very  small,  but  if  the 
river  flows  for  ages  into  a basin  having  no  outlet,  much  salt 
gathers  there.  Water  standing  in  such  a basin  forms  a salt  lake. 

There  are  many  salty  valleys  and  salt  lakes  in  the  Great  Basin. 
One  of  these,  Great  Salt  lake,  covers  an  area  of  about  two 
thousand  square  miles.  This  lake  widens  in  rainy  weather  and 
sh  miks 'i  n time  of  drouth.  A cupful  of  its  water  contains  a table- 
spoonful  of  salt,  — more  than  four  times  the  quantity  in  a cupful 


of  ocean  water.  Salt  Lake  City,  the  largest  city  in  the  Great  Basin, 
is  near  the  shore  of  this  lake. 

Many  centuries  ago,  when  there  was  a wetter  climate,  a much 
larger  body  of  water  filled  the  basin  in  which  Great  Salt  lake  lies. 
The  old  lake  tlien  overflowed  northward  at  the  lowest  pass  in  the 
enclosing  mountains  and  discharged  to  a branch  of  the  Columbia 
river.  The  old  shore  lines  may  still  be  seen  on  the  mountain  sides, 
nearly  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  Great  Salt  lake. 

In  what_direction  does  the  Humbqldt  river  flow?  This  is  one 
of  the  streams  which  run  into  sinks  and  form  salt  lakes.  The  first 
railroad  built  across  the  continent  follows  the  Humboldt  river  past 
the  ends  of  about  fifteen  ranges. 

In  the  low  Southwest  part  of  the  Great  Basin,  there  is  a sink 
that  dips  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  is  known  as  Deatli  Valley 
andisnoted 
for  its  dry- 
ness  and 
its  intense 
summer 
heat.  Still 
f arth  e r 
south  lies 
the  Mohav.e 
d e s e r t , 
stretching 
from  the 
Sierra  Ne- 
vada to  the 
Colorado  river. 

A region  extending  northward  from  the  gulf  of  California  was 
once  covered  by  that  body  of  water,  but  was  cut  off 
by  the  delta  of  the  Colorado  river.  The  region  being 
very  dry,  the  water  in  the  old  head  of  the  gulf  has 
long  since  dried  away,  leaving  a desert  plain.  Some- 
times  a distributary  from  the  Colorado  river  flows 
into  the  hollow  and  forms  a temporary  lake. 

The  Basin  region  includes  not  only  the  Great 
Basin,  but  also  two  smaller  districts  that  are  partly 
drained  to  the  sea.  One  of  these  is  southeast,  and 
the  other  northwest,  of  the  Great  Basin.  On  the 
m ap  (page  32)  they  are  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  Basin  region  by  lightly-dotted  lines. 

In  the  northwest  part  of  the  Basin  region,  the 
mountains  are  so  young  that  no  deep  valleys  are  yet 
worn  in  their  sides.  These  mountains  are  edges  of 
huge  blocks,  tilted  like  those  shown  in  the  picture. 
The  shape  of  the  blocks  has  hardly  changed  since  the 
region  was  thus  broken  up.  Lakes  lie  in  the  troughs  between  the 
tilted  blocks.  Most  of  the  lakes  have  no  overflow  to  the  sea. 


Colorado  Plateau  Region  (page  37). 


Basin  Ranges  and  Troughs,  — Wet  Season. 


THE  COLORADO  PLATEAUS. 


37 


38.  The  Colorado  Plateaus. 

A broad  region  southeast  of  the 
Great  Basin  consists  of  loftj  plateaus 
in  which  rivers  have  cut  long  and 
deep  canjons.  This  highland  region 
is  known  as  the  Colorado  plateaus. 

The  rainfall  on  the  Colorado  pla- 
teaus is  light,  because  high  ranges  lie 
to  w i nd w ard.  near  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  higher  and  cooler  parts  of  the 
plateau  receive  the  most  rainfall. 

The  largest  rivers  in  this  region  are 
fed  by  rains  and  melting  snow  on  the 
Rocky  mountains. 

These  plateaus  were  formed  ages  ago  by  tlie  slow  uplifting  of 
great  blocks  of  land,  inany  miles  long  and  wide.  The  surfaces  of 
some  of  the  blocks  are  a mile  or  a mile  and  a half  above  sea  level. 

The  edges  of  the  higher  blocks  form  cliffs  a thousand  or  more 
feet  high.  In  rnany  places  the  rocky  layers  rise  one  over  another, 
in  broad  benches,  as  shown  in  a picture  on  the  opposite  page. 

Across  these  plateau  blocks,  the  Colorado  river  has  cut  a great 


the  lavas  came  are  now  to  be  seen.  These 
necks  form  steep  hills,  or  buttes. 

Some  of  the  lavas  which  flowed 
from  the  volcanoes  to  the  lower  land 
now  form  small  table-lands,  or  mescis, 
— the  surrounding  surface  having 
been  worn  away. 

The  Colorado  plateaus  are 
thinly  settled,  for  most 


Canyon  I 

Colorado.  RT-.;/ .>'  I 

■ 1 Lower  Colorado. 

parts  of  them  are  dry  and  barren,  or  covered  with  sage- 
brush.  On  several  of  the  higher  parts  and  near  the 


Young  Volcano. 

canyon,  with  steep  sides  all  rugged  with 
spurs  and  ravines.  There  one  may  see  the 
rocks,  layer  on  layer,  of  which  the  plateaus 
are  made. 

For  a long  distance  the  Colorado  canyon 
is  about  a mile  deep.  Its  sides  consist 
of  rocks  of  many  colors,  — gray,  brown, 
red,  yellow  and  purple.  At  times  of  sun- 
rise  and  sunset,  first  one  color  and  then 
another  catches  the  light  or  is  tlirown  into 
shadow,  — m aking  a marvelous  display. 

The  Colorado  canyon  is  a young  river 
valley.  Unlike  most  valleys,  it  does  not 
serve  as  a place  to  live  in  or  as  a route  of 
travel.  The  rapids  in  the  river  prevent 
navigation ; the  canyon  is  so  deep  and 
narrow  tliat  it  can  be  followed  only  with 
great  danger;  and  travel  across  it  from 
cliff  to  cliff  is  almost  impossible. 

Several  large  volcanoes  have  been  built 
on  the  Colorado  plateaus,  and  many  lava- 
flows  have  spread  over  their  surfaces. 
Some  of  the  volcanoes  have  wasted  away, 
so  that  only  the  necks  through  which 


Anclent  Cliff  Dwelllngs. 


a and  Volcanic  Neck. 


streams  there  are  groves  and  grassy 
tracts. 


On  some  of  the  me  sas,  tribes  of  Indians 
make  their  homes.  The  steep  sides  of 
the  mesas  afford  protection  from  enemies. 

Ruins  of  strange  dwellings  are  found 
in  shallow  caves  under  the  cliffs  in  some 
of  the  canyons  of  the  Colorado  plateau 
region.  The  Indians  who  made  these 
dwellings  disappeared  before  the  white 
men  set  foot  in  that  country.  The  people 
of  that  ancient  race  are  now  called  “ Cliff- 
dwellers.”  They  knew  how  to  weave  coarse 
cloth  and  to  make  pottery.  Their  villages 
were  built  in  the  cliffs  in  order  that  the 
tribes  might  be  safe  from  attack. 

Many  kinds  of  cactus  plants  thrive  in 
this  dry  plateau  country.  Some  of  these 
are  small,  but  others  grow  to  trees.1 


1 On  the  next  page  there  are  pictures  of  two 
species  of  cactus  trees  and  also  of  a Iree  yucca, 
or  Spanish  bayonet.  The  latter  has  stiff  bayonet- 
like  leaves. 


38 


THE  COLUMBIA  PLATEAU. 


39.  The  Columbia  Plateau. 


40.  The  Coast  Range  and  Valleys. 


What  large  river  drains  the  region  on  the  north  of 
the  Great  Basin  ? Name  the  largest  south  branch  of 
this  river. 

What  mountains  are  on  the  east  and  the  west  sides 
of  the  Columbia  plateau.  See  map  on  page  32. 

The  Columbia  plateau  is  about  half  as  high 
as  the  Colorado  plateau  region.  The  north  and 
east  parts  of  the  Columbia  plateau  are 
broken  by  rugged  mountains.  Great  lava 
plains  form  the  south  and  west  parts.  This 
plateau  is  in  the  path  of  the  westerly 
winds,  and  receives  more  rainfall  than  the 
Great  Basin,  for  the  Cascade  mountains 
are  lower  than  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

In  the  northeast  portion  of  the  Columbia 
plateau  there  are  many  fertile  valleys. 

Some  of  these  are  wooded  with  pine 
and  fir  txees.  Other  parts  have  deep 
and  rich  soil  which  in  recent  years 
has  yielded  large  crops  of  wheat. 

The  lava  plains  in  the  southwesLare 
mostly  dry  and  barrem  except  near  the 
streams. 

Long  ages  ago,  the  great  lava-floods  of  this  region 
were  poured  into  a broad  lowland  where  the  lava  cooled 
and  formed  an  inunense  plain  between  high  ranges  on  the  east 
and  the  west.  A picture  on  page  15  shows  part  of  the  lava  plain, 
and  one  of  the  cuts  on  page  31  shows  a cooled  lava  wave. 

The  lava  plain  of  the  Columbia  region  covers  many  thousand 
square  miles,1  and  in  places  is  hundreds  of  feet  deep. 

Ages  have 
passed  since  the 
great  flows  of 
lava  took  place. 
Rivers  have  now 
worn  eanyons  in 
the  lava  beds. 
The  narrow  flood 
plains  are  fertile 
and  afford  fine 
soil  for  the 
growth  of  wheat, 
but  most  of  the 
region  is  barren 
and  theref ore 
thinly  settled. 

The  Snake  river  has  cut  the  longest  and  deepest  of  these  eanyons. 
Near  the  head  of  its  canyon,  the  river  plunges  over  the  edges  of 
some  of  the  lava  beds,  making  falls  of  great  size  and  beauty. 
These  are  known  as  the  Shoshone  falls. 

Along  the  sides  of  the  canyon,  both  above  and  below  the  falls, 
can  be  seen  the  lava  and  ashes;  layer  on  layer,  through  which  the 
river  has  cut  its  channel.  ) 

1 The  lava-flows  in  this  part  of  the  continent  cover  from  150,000  to 
200,000  square  miles,  — an  area  equal  to  about  one  twentieth  that  of  our 
whole  country.  Part  of  the  lava-flows  took  place  in  Canada.  They  are 
the  greatest  in  the  world,  except  perhaps  those  of  the  Deccan  peninsula, 
in  India. 


West  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
mountains  lie  several  mountain  ridges  form- 
ing a low  Coast  range.  Being  near  the  ocean, 
and  in  the  path  of  the  westerly  winds, 
this  range  has  a milder  and  more  uniform 
climate  than  the  regions  in 
the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent. Most  parts  of 
the  range  are  wooded. 

Near  the  foggy  coast 
north  of  San  Francisco 
bay  grow  the  giant  red- 
wood  trees  which  yield 
valuable  lumber.  The 
redwoods  are  almost  as 
large  as  the  “ big  trees  ” of 
the  Sierra  and  belong  in  the 
same  family.  In  the  moun- 
tains south  of  the  bay,  there  is  one  of 
the  few  places  in  the  world  where 
quicksilver  is  found. 

One  of  the  largest  telescopes  yet  made  is 
located  on  Mt.  Hamilton,  in  the  Coast  range 
south  of  San  Francisco.  The  objeet  glass  of 
the  telescope  is  a yard  in  diameter.  Seen 
through  this  great  instrument,  the  moon 
appears  to  be  only  a few  miles  away. 

The  long  lowland  plain  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
the  Coast  range  is  called  the  volley  of  California.  It  is 
covered  with  waste  washed  from  the  mountains.  This 
great  valley  has  plentiful  winter  rains,  but  its  summers 
are  dry.  Its  principal  produets  are  wheat  and  fruit. 

Many  streams  from  the  Sierra  are  still  building  up  the  floor  of 
the  valley  plain  with  their  flood  deposits.  The  streams  flow  in 
shallow  channels  and  are  easily  turned  aside  to  irrigate  the  land. 

The  great  port  of  San  F rancisco.  on  the  fine  bay  of  the 
same  name,  owes  its  rapid  growth  to  the  discovery  of 


uy  'i  Orange  Grove,  Caliiomla. 

San  Francisco  bay  is  the 
W V V * drowneel  valley  of  a river  that  once 

cut  through  the  mountains.  It  is  the 
only  break  in  the  Coast  range  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  forms 
one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world.  The  streams  which  flow 


THE  YUKON  REGION. 


39 


from  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  run  along  the  valley,  then  unite 
and  enter  San  Franciso  bay. 

In  the  south  the  valley  of  California  ends  where  the 
Coast  range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  bend  towards  each 


Puget  sound  is  a drowned  valley  that  leads  searwater 
through  the  Coast  range  and  forms  many  fine  harhors. 
The  region  about  the  sound  is  in  the  path  of  the  westerly 
storm  eddies  and  is  one  of  the  leading  lumber  districts 
in  the  world.  Its  mountain  slopes  are  covered  with 
pine,  fir  and  spruce. 


Calilornia  Vineyard. 


other  and  meet.  Still  farther 
south  are  many  small  but 
fertile  valleys.  In  that  region 
the  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  but  the  winters  are 
mild  and  rainy.  During  the  dry  season,  water  for  the 
fruit  groves  is  led  in  ditches  from  the  mountains. 
OrangeSj  lemons,  grapes,  and  many  other  kinds  of  fruit 
thrive  in  the  valleys. 

...  Owing  to  the  mild- 

ness  of  the  climate, 
the  cities  of  Southern 
California  have  be- 
come  well  known  as 
health  resorts. 

The  Wi Hårnett, e 
valley  lies  between 
the  Cascade  and 
Coast  ranges.  This 

L«ick  Observatory,  Mt.  Hamilton.  • • n 

region  is  well 

watered  and  is  very  fertile.  Portland  has  a fine  harbor  on 
the  Willamette  river  and  has  therefore  grown  to  be  the 
leading  center  of  trade  in  the  region. 

Sand  bars  form  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  and  make  entranee 
difficult  for  large  vessels.  Massive  stone  walls,  ealled  jetties,  have 
been  built 
to  narrow 
the  channel 
and  thus 
deepen  the 
mouth  of 
this  great 
stream.  The 


San  Francisco — Golden  Gate. 

Columbia  river  is  famous 
for  its  salmon  fisheries. 

Where  is  Puget  sound? 
What  larce  isTand  partly 
incloses  this  great  sound? 
See  map  of  United  States 
in  the  Supplement. 


Old  Clift  House  and  Seal  Rocks. 


Fur  Seals, 

Pribilof  Islands. 


Rivers  bearing  plentiful  waste  from 
the  mountains  have  built  deltas  at  the  heads  of  many  of  the  jiards,- 
thus  forming  smooth-floored  valleys  only  a little  above  sea  level. 

41.  The  Yukon  Region. 

Northward  from  the  Columbia  region  the  country 
is  mountainous  but  not  very  high  nor  very  wide, 
except  in  the  border  ranges. 

What  mountains  border  this  region  on  the  east  ? What 
range  is  on  the  west  ? 

In  the  far  northwest,  the  ranges  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  liighland  spread  apart  in  the  great  penin. 
sula  of  Alaska.  The  main  range  bends  westward  along 
the  coast,  to  the  end  of  the  Alaskan  peninsula. 

The  greater  part  of  Alaska  is  drained  by  the  Yukon 
river.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  streams  in  America. 
Most  of  its  basin  is  cold,  dreary  and  little  known. 

The  Southwest  shore  of  Alaska  has  a mild  climate, 
although  so  far  from  the  equator.  The  ocean  winds  are 


For  a long  distance  northward  from  the  head  of  Puget  sound, 
the  mountainous  coast  region  is  broken  by  deep  valleys,  now 
partly  sunk  beneath  the  sea.  The  drowned  valleys  form  many 
fiaxds  running  far  inland,  and  also  long  sounds  behind  islands. 
Puget  sound  is  the  most  important  of  thesé  drowned  valleys. 
Steamers  can  follow  the  quiet  waters  of  these  sounds  and  thus 
avoid  the  rough  ocean  outside. 


40 


HIGHLAND  OF  MEXICO. 


there  warmed  by  the  drift  from  the  Japan  current.  Warm 
moist  winds  from  the  sea  are  chilled  in  rising  over  the 
mountain  slopes  in  Alaska  and  therefore  yield  very  heavy 
snowfall. 

Among  tlie  high  peaks  of  this  region  are  Mt.  Lo  gan  and  Mt. 
St.  Elias.  For  a long  time  Mt.  St.  Elias  was  thought  to  be  the 
highest  peak  on  the  continent,  but  Mt.  Logan,  recently  discovered 

a few  miles  farther  

inland,  is  '"'y  ; 

more  \ ( 

than  " ' ' ""=““ 


a fourth  of  a mile 
higher,  — a little 
more  than  three 
miles1  and  two 
thirds  above  sea 
level. 

Alaska  belongs  to 
the  United  States, 
but  these  high  peaks 
are  just  east  of  the 
border  line  between 
Alaska  and  Canada. 

From  the  s n o w y 
mountains  in  Alaska, 
many  glaeiers  descend 
to  bords  and  yield 
countless  icebergs.  Streams 
flowing  from  beneath  the 
glaeiers  build  deltas  in 
front  of  the  ice.  The  delta 
shown  in  the  picture  on  page  13  was 
thus  made. 

One  of  the  pictures  on  this  page  shows 
the  melting  end  of  an  Alaskan  glacier. 

As  the  great  stream  of  ice  slowly  creeps 
down  from  the  upper  snow-belds,  rock  waste 
falls  upon  it,  and  near  the  lower  end  trees  grow  in 
the  soil  on  the  ice.  In  the  picture.  the  face  of  the  glacier  looks 
like  a cliff  almost  hidden  by  the  trees  in  front  of  it  and  upon  it. 

The  shore-waters  and  many  of  the  streams  of  Alaska  abound  in 
fish.  The  people  in  this  district  prepare  great  quantities  of 
salmon  for  market. 

Where  is  Bering  sea?  In  summer  large  herds  of  seals  visit  the 
Pribilof  islands,  in  Bering  sea,  to  rear  their  young.  Many  of 
these  seals  are  killed  for  their  bne  fur.  The  islands  on  the  south, 
partly  inclosing  this  sea,  eontain  many  volcanoes  now  active. 

What  lands  are  separated  by  Bering  strait  ? 

1Mt.  Logan,  19,500  feet ; Mt.  St.  Elias,  18,010  feet. 


42.  Highland  of  Mexico. 

West  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico  rises  the  lofty  highland  of 
Mexico.  This  great  mass  of  land  is  narrow  in  the  south 
but  broad  in  the  north  where  it  merges  into  the  Basin 
region  and  the  Rocky  mountains. 

The  highest  range  of  mountains  running  northward  in 
Mexico  is  the  Sierra  Madre. 

The  narrow  Southern  end  of  the  platepu  of  Mexico  is 
about  a mile  and  a half  above  sea  level.  A cliain  of  large 
volcanoes  extends  east  and  west  across  this  end 
of  the  highland.  Some  of  the  craters  are  more 
than  twice  as  high  as  the  plateau. 

Orizaba  is  the  highest  of  these  peaks,  but  its 
summit  is  more  than  a thousand  feet  lower 
than  that  of  Mtc  Logan. 

Popocatepetl  is  another  high  peak  in 
this  volcanic  region.  Indians  that  live  on 
the  sides  of  Popocatepetl  take  sulphur  in 
large  quantities  from  the  crater. 

Northward  from  this  chain  of  vol- 
canoes stretches  the  lofty  plateau. 
Below  it,  on  the  east,  lie  narrow 
marshy  Coastal  plains.  The  region 
west  of  the  Sierra  Madre  resembles 
the  Basin  region  of  our  country. 

Mexico  lies  north  of  the  equatorial 
rain  belt  but  is  in  the  track  of  the 
trade  winds.  The  wet  season  on  the 
plateau  and  in  the  eastern  Coastal 
plain  prevails  in  summer  wlien  the 
moist  air  from  over  the  sea  blows  in- 
land. Most  of  the  western  slope  of 
the  highland  of  Mexico  is  dry,  because 
the  winds  that  blow  over  it  are  warm- 
ing  on  their  way  towards  the  heat 
equator.  The  region  is  too  far  north 
to  be  reached  by  the  equatorial  rains 
and  too  far  south  for  the  moist 
westerly  winds.  See  maps  on  page  2b. 

The  highland  of  Mexico  is  so  near  the 
coasts  that  there  are  no  large  river  basins  on 
either  side.  In  times  of  heavy  rainfall,  many 
small  streams  on  the  east  slope  rush  down 
gorges  that  they  are  wearing  in  the  side  of 
the  plateau,  and  overflow  parts  of  the  narrow  Coastal  plain. 

• Several  low  ranges  divide  the  high  plain  into  shallow  troughs 
like  those  in  the  Great  Basin.  The  rainfall  is  so  light  that  from 
most  of  the  basins  there  is  no  overflow  to  the  sea,  and  therefore  no 
deep  canyons  have  been  cut  in  these  parts  of  the  plateau.  In  rainy 
seasons  water  collects  in  the  basins  and  forms  lakes.  When  the 
rains  are  over,  the  water  in  many  of  the  lakes  dries  away. 

The  eastern  coastal  plains  of  Mexico  are  hot  and  unhealthful. 
They  consist  largely  of  swampy  land,  densely  wooded. 

There  are  no  good  harbors,  because  there  are  no  drowned 
valleys  nor  large  river  mouths.  The  gulf  coast  of  Mexico  is 
fringed  with  long  sand  bars  built  offshore  by  the  waves.  Vera 


Hauung  a 

SALMON 

SEINE 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


41 


Cruz,  the  chief  port,  is  on  the  narrow  Coastal  plain,  and 
sand  bars  partly  protect  the  harbor  from  storms. 

Because  of  height  and  nearness  to 
the  equator,  the  climate  of  the  plateau 
of  Mexico  is  mild  all  the  year,  and 
there  are  no  long  periods  of  great 
heat  or  cold.  Tliis  plateau  produces 
oaks,  cedars  and  other  tregs,  as  well 
as  many  smaller  plants  like  tliose  in 
the  Southwest  part  of  our  country. 

Millions  of  Indians  and  white 
people  live  on  the  plateau  of  Mexico. 

The  chief  city  is  called  Mexico . It  is  situated  in  a beauti- 
ful  hill-encircled  valley  nearly  a mile  and  a half  above 
sea  level. 

43.  Central  America. 

Which  part  of  North  America 
is  called  Central  America  ? 


Popocatepetl,  Mexico. 


IS 


Water  Carrier, 
Mexico. 


Mexican  cart.  Most  of  this  region 

rugged  country.  Its  highest  parts  are  volcanic  ranges 
rising  mainly  along  the  Pacific  border,  but  hranching 
inland.  These  ranges  are  not  nearly  so 
high  as  the  great  volcanic  range  in 
Mexico.  The  Pacific  coast  of  this  region 
is  bold  and  rocky. 

Central  America  is  in  the  belt  of  the 
trade  winds  and  receives  rains  chiefly  on 
the  east  slqpe.  In  summer  this  land  hag 
also  the  equatorial  rains  which  water 
the  west  as  well  as  the  east  coast. 

The  eastern  Coastal  plaiu  of  Central  America 
is  a continuation  of  that  in  Mexico.  These 
damp  lands  are  densely  wooded  and  are  covered 
with  jungles  in  which  many  wild  beasts  live. 

Plants  grow  so  quickly  there  that  it  is  difficult 
to  keep  the  lands  cleared  for  farming. 

Among  the  ranges  of  Central  America  are  broad  plains, 
or  upland  valleys,  that  average  about  half  a mile  in 
height.  The  soil  of  these  plains  consists  mainly  of 
weathered  volcanic  ash,  very  fine  and  fertile.  Many 
white  people,  Indians  and  Negroes  ’’ 
in  these  upland  valleys. 

Locate  Lake  Nicaragua.  This  lake 
is  part  of  a route  that  has  been  selected 
for  a canal  between  the  two  oceans. 

On  an  island  in  the  lake  there  is  a 
volcano  whose  sides  were  at  one  time 
laid  out  in  beautiful  ganjens.  Not 
many  years  ago,  great  streams  of  lava 
and  aslies  burst  from  the  crater  and 
flowed  down  the  sides  of  tlie  cone, 
burying  the  gardens  many  feet  deep. 

Another  volcano  in  Central ^America 
poured  a flood  of  water  over  a town  Mexican  vmage. 


and  washed  away  its  houseg.  The  water  came  from  a 
lake  that  had  formed  in  the  crater.  There  are  many 
crater  lakes  in  this  region. 

In  many  parts  of  Central  America  are  ruins 
of  temples  and  idols  made  by  Indians  who 
held  the  land  when  the  white  menjirst_we»t 
there.  Most  of  the  ruins  are  now  overgrown 
with  trees.  'jA 

44.  The  Appalachian  Highland. 

East  of  the  Rocky  mountains  spreads 
the  great  central  plain  of  North 
America.  This  plain  reaches  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  ocean. 

The  Appalachian  highland  is  east  of  the  Southern  half 
of  the  central  plain.  This  highland  extends  Southwest 
from  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  nearly  to  the  gulf  of 
Mexico. 

The  Appalachian  highland  is  well  supplied  with  rain- 
fall  at  all  seagons.  Moist  winds  reach  it  from  over  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic  ocean.  The  slopes  of 
the  highland  are 
wooded  with  oak, 
maple,  cone-bearers 
and  many  other 
kinds  of  trees. 

The  Appalachian 
highland  consists  of 
several  regions  which 
may  be  named  as  follows : 

The  Old  Appalachian 
range,  — including  the 
New  England  highland, 
the  Blue  ridge,  the  Carolina  highland,  and  other  ridges  having 
various  names. 

The  Piedmont  Belt.  The  word  piedmont  means  foot  of  the 
mountains,  and  is  here  applied  to  the  rolling  or  hilly  land  along 
the  eastern  foot  of  the  Old  Appalachian  range. 

The  Great  Vallen.  - — a long  and- narrow  lowland  on  the  west  of 
the  Old  Appalachian  range. 

The  Alleqhany  ridges,  — rising  on  the  west  of  the  Great 
Valley. 

The  Alleghany  plateau,  — a broad  upland  region  next  on  the 
northwest. 

The  boundaries  of  these  regions  are  shown  by  lightly-dotted  lines 
,L1~  - map.  See  page  32. 


Century  Plants,  Mexico. 


Note  : The  large  island  of  Newfound- 
land, though  beyond  the  gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  may  be  treated  as  part  of 
the  Appalachian  highland.  This  island 
has  sunk  partly  beneath  the  sea,  making 
a very  broken  coastline.  In  the  ocean 
southeast  of  the  island  are  shallow 
places  known  as  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland. These.  banks  abound  in 
cod,  halibut  and  other  kinds  of  fish. 

The  ridges  of  the  Ozarlc  highland 
resemble  the  Alleghany  ridges.  See 
lesson  Jfl. 


42 


OLD  APPALACHIAN  RANGE. 


of  this  region  are  nearly  all  on  the  seacoast  or  near  the 
falls  in  the  rivers.  Boston  is  the  greatest  seaport  in 
this  region. 

The  surfaee  of  the  New  England  highland  was  lieavily  scoured 
by  the  ancient  ice-sheet  from  the  Laurentian  highland.  The  weaker 
rocks  were  worn  away,  and  rock  waste  was  left  unevenly  spread 
over  the  region.  When  the  ice  inelted,  the  streams  were  held  back 
in  the  scoured  basins  and  behind  the  barriers  of  drift,  or  rock 
waste,  thus  forming  numerous  lakes.  Many  of  the  streams  were 
pushed  aside  from  their  old  valleys  and  were  made  to  flow  over 
ledges  from  which  they  now  fall  in  rapids  and  cascades.  Since  the 
ice  melted,  there  has  not  been  time  for  the  streams  to  cut  down 
the  ledges  and  drain  the  lakes.  Towns  and  cities  have  growp  up 


fine  farming  lands,  lies  between  this  group  and  the 
Green  mountains. 

Mt.  Washington,  one  of  the  White  mountains,  is  the  highest 
peak  in  the  northeast  part  of  our  country.  , 


45.  Old  Appalachian  Range  and  Piedmont  Belt. 


The  portion  of  the  Old  Appalachian  range  known  as 
the  New  Englancl  highland  stretches  from  the  gul  f of  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  Hudson  river.1  This  highland  consists 
of  a broad  and  rolling  upland,  above  which  rise  hills  and 
mountains.  The  surfaee  is  also  broken  by  many  valleys 
in  which  lakes  abound. 

The  highest  group  of  peaks  in  this  highland  is  known 
as  the  White  mountains.  The  Connecticut  valley,  with  its 


The  rolling  or  liilly  piedmont  slope  of  the  New  Eng- 
land highland  reaches  to  the  sea.  The  cities  and  towns 

1 The  New  England  states  occupy  only  part  of  this  highland. 


at  the  falls  and  rapids  where  water  power  is  supplied  to  many 
mills  and  factories.  The  eoastline  of  this  piedmont  slope  is  very 
irregular,  for  the  land  has  sunk  partly  beneath  the  sea,  forming 
deep  bays  or  fiords  which  separate  headlands  and  islands.  Waves 


THE  GRE  AT  VALLE  Y. 


43 


Still  farther  Southwest, 


on  the  exposed  shores  are  cutting  cliffs1  but  the  rocks  are  so  hard 
that  they  wear  away  very  slowly. 

For  some  distance  Southwest  of  the  Hudson  river,  the 
Old  Appalachian  range  is  neither  so  high  nor  so  wide  as 
in  the  New  England  highland.  This  lower  part  looks 
like  a long  and  narrow  plateau. 
the  old  range  becomes  liigher 
and  wider  and  is  there  called 
the  Blue  ridge. 

On  the  south,  the  Blue 
ridge  runs  into  the  Carolina 
highland  which  contains  the 
highest  peaks  in  the  whole 
range. 

Mt.  Mitchell,  one  of  the  Black 
mountains  in  the  Carolina  highland,  is  about 
a mile  and  a fourth  high  and  overtops  all 
other  peaks  in  the  Appalachian  highland. 

The  piedraont  slope  east  of  the  Blue 
ridge  and  Carolina  highland  is  a hilly 
region  gradually  descending  to  the 
wide  Coastal  plain,  with  its  farm  lands, 
its  pine  forests  and  its  cypress  swainps. 

This  part  of  the  piedmont  is  a fine 
farming  district  and  is  noted  for  its 
large  crops  of  cotton  and  tobacco. 

'ste  ^ 

46.  The  Gre^t  Valley  and  Alleghany  Ridges. 

The  Great  Valley  in  the  Appalachian  highland  is  a long 
lowland,  with  mountains  on  the  east  and  the  west.  At 
the  north,  the  Great  Valley  opens  into  the  St.  Lawrence 
basin ; and  at  the  south,  into  the  Gulf  Coastal  plain.  The 
greater  part  of  the  long  val- 
ley is  covered  with  farms. 

The  largest  rivers  rising  in 
the  Appalachian  region  do  not 
run  along  the  Great  Valley  but 
across  it,  and  escape  by  deep  and 
narrow  gorges  worn  through  the 
inclosing  highland.  The  Hud- 
son,  Delaware,  Susque- 
hanna,  Potomac  and 
James  rivers  rise  in  the 
highland  westoi  the  Great 
Valley  and  flow  across  the 
valley  and  the  Old  Appa- 
lachian range.  See  colored 
map  of  Middle  Atlantic 
states. 

The  Tennessee  river 
rises  in  the  old  range  east 
of  the  long  valley,  but 

flows  westward  across  the  valley  and  reaches  the  Ohio 

The  most  important  of  these  cross-gorges  in  the  Ap- 
palachian range  is  that  of  the  Hudson  river,  for  it  unites 


with  other  valleys  to  make  an  open  highway  northward 
to  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  and  westward  up  the  Moliavyk 
river  towards  the  Great  Lakes.  Northward  the  valley 
route  leads  through  Lake  George  and  Lake  Champlain. 


New  York  and  Brooklyn. 


Erle  Canal. 


river.  ( 


A large  part  of  the 
Hudson  gorge  has  been 
slightly  drowned,  making 
a fine  water  way  far  in- 
land  from  the  seacoast. 

Nearly  three  fourths  of 
a century  ago,  the  long 
a cypress  swamp.  Brie  cmial  was  built  along 

'H  _ the  Mohawk  branch  of 

the  Great  Valley,  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson  river. 
This  canal  furnishes  a cheap  route  of  trade  between  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic  seacoast-  Railroads  now 
follow  closely  along  the  same  route.  The  great  port  of 
New  York  owes  its  growth  largely  to  its  position  on  an 

excellent  harbor  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson  val- 
ley, where  trade  can  easily 
be  carried  on,  botli  inland 
and  across  the  oceans.  The 
other  gorges  which  cross 
the  highland  are  also  used 
as  lines  of  travel. 

Water  slowly  dissolves  lime- 
stone  and  tlius  forms  caves  or 
caverns.  There  are  many  of 
these  in  the  Appalachian  region. 
The  Caveru  of  Luray,  in  the 
Great  Valley  of  Virginia,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful.2  See 
picture  on  page 

The  roofs  of  caves  sometimes  fall,  making  deep  gorges;  or 
only  a small  part  may  remain  standing  in  the  form  of  an  arch. 
The  Natural  Bridge  sliown  in  the  picture  on  page  42  is  in 
the  Great  Valley.  This  rocky  arch  is  over  200  feet  high. 
See  colored  map  of  Middle  Atlantic  states. 

The  long  even-crested  ridges  or  folds  west  of  the  Great 
Valley,  as  far  north  as  the  Hudson  gorge,  may  be  called  the 


1 See  pictures  of  Grand  Manan,  page  16. 


2 Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky,  is  larger  than  that  of  Luray. 


44 


THE  ALLEGHANY  PLATEAU. 


Alleghany  ridges.  They  often  extend  for 
many  miles  in  a straight  course,  without 
any  peaks.  See  note  to  picture  below. 

These  ridges  are  all  forested,  and 
the  valleys  between  them  are  good 
farming  lowlands.  The  streams 
which  gather  in  these  inner  valleys 
escape  through  narrow  notches,  or 
gaps,  in  the  ridges.  The  chief  rail- 
roads  and  wagon  roads  enter  the 
inner  valleys  through  these  gaps. 

The  northern  part  of  the  Alleghany 
ridges  supplies  almost  all  the  hard 
coal  and  some  of  the  iron  ore 
in  our  country. 

47.  The  Alleghany  Plateau. 

The  eastern  side  of  the  Alleghany 
plateau  falls  by  steep  slopes  into 
valleys  next  to  the  Alleghany  ridges.  On  the  west  and 
south,  the  plateau  descends  gradually  to  the  prairies  and 
the  Gidf  Coastal  plain. 


The  rocky  layers  of  the  plateau  contain 
beds  of  soft  coal  and  iron  ore.  The 
many  valleys  cut  by  branch  streams 
expose  these  valuable  beds  on  the 
slopes,  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
found  and  mined.  The  northern 
half  of  the  plateau  yields  great  quan- 
tities  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas. 

Pittsburg  has  grown  up  at  the 
place  where  two  rivers  unite  to 
form  the  Ohio.  This  city  is  noted 
for  its  coal  trade,  iron  mills  and 
glassworks.  The  Ohio  river  forms 
a fine  water  way  from  Pittsburg  to 
the  Mississippi  river. 

The  Southern  half  of  the  Alle- 
ghany plateau  is  mostly  drained  by 
two  large  tributaries  of  the  Ohio 
river.  These  streams  and  their 
branches  have  worn  deep  valleys,  making  a very  rugged 
region.  Travel  is  difficult  and  this  part  of  the  plateau 
is  not  so  thickly  settled  as  that  farther  north. 


Tliis  plateau  is  so  greatly  worn  by  branching  streams  that  it  is 
known  to  be  older  than  the  smoother  plateau  of  the  Columbia 
basin,  where  the  valleys  are  narrower. 

The  rivers  of  the  Alleghany  plateau  receive 
water  so  quickly  from  the  many  steep 
valley-slopes  that  they  often  rise 
thirty  or  forty  feet  in  floods. 

Nearly  all  these  rivers  flow  into 
the  Ohio. 

Most  of  the  higher  parts 
of  the  Alleghany  plateau  are 
forested  and  yield  valuable 
timber.  The  lower  western 
portions  of  the  upland  have 
been  cleared  of  trees  and  now 
form  rich  farming  and  graz- 
ing  districts,  — famous  for 
wool  and  for  dairy  products. 


The  Ozark  highland.  west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  resembles 
parts  of  the  Appalachian  highland.  The  Southern  part  of  the 
Ozark  region  has  many  straight  and  even-crested  ridges  through 
which  the  rivers  have  cut  gaps  like  those  in  the 
Alleghany  ridges. 

The  northern  half  of  the  Ozark 
highland  is  a plateau  whose  main 
slopeis  towards  theMissouri  river. 
This  plateau  is  greatly  worn  by 
streams  and  in  form  resembles  the 
Alleghany  plateau ; but  many  of 
the  even  uplands  in  the  Ozark 
region  are  open  prairies. 

Note  : This  picture  shows  part 
of  one  of  the  Alleghany  ridges. 
The  folded  rock-layers  were  once 
covered  by  many  others,  but  they 
have  long  been  exposed  to  the 
weather  and  have  therefore  wasted 
away. 


THE  LAURENTIAN  HIGHLAND. 


45 


48.  The  Laurentian  Highland. 

The  St.  Lawrence  river  flows  in  a valley 
that  separates  the  Laurentian  highland 
from  the  Appalachian. 

The  Laurentian  highland  extends 
from  the  Labrador  peninsula  South- 
west towards  the  Great  Lakes ; 
tlience  running  north  of  these  bodies 
of  water,  the  highland  bends  to  the 
northwest  and  approaches  the  Arctic 
coast  not  far  from  the  west  shore  of 
Hudson  bay. 

Northwest  of  the  St.  Lawrence  gulf 
and  river  the  highland  is  a desolate  region 
strewn  with  boulders  and  broken  by  val- 
leys.  Bare  rocky  hills  rise  in  some  places, 
but  no  part  deserves  the  name  of  moun- 
tain  range. 

This  region  was  once  more  mountainous  than 
it  now  is,  but  ages  ago  it  was  worn  down.  It  is  not  so  rich  in 
valuable  minerals  as  many  old  deep-worn  mountains  are. 

The  northeast  part  of  our  continent  has  sunk  partly  beneath  the 
sea,  making  the  coast  line  very  irregular.  The  St.  Lawrence  val- 
ley  was  thus  partly  drowned,  forming  a broad  gulf  and  carrying  the 
navigable  waters  far  inland. 


Eider  Duck  and  Nest. 


Similar  rounded  and  scratclied  rocks  are  found  all 
over  the  Laurentian  highland  and  over  the  northern 
part  of  the  Appalachian  highland.  It  is  therefore 
believed  that  these  regions  were  once 
covered  with  an  ice-sheet  like  that  which 
now  covers  Greenland.  Their  many  lake 
basins  were  made  chiefly  by  the  scraping 
of  the  ice  and  by  the  uneven  heaping  of 
the  waste,  or  drift ^ which  the  ice  left. 

In  these  regions  many  streams 
were  turned  aside  from  their  old 
valleys  by  barriers  of  drift,  and 
were  thus  made  to  flow  over  rocky 
ledges  where  we  now  find 
falls  and  rapids.  If  it  had 
not  been  for  this'  action  of 
the  ifee-sheet,  there  would 
be  no  lakes  and  but  few 
falls  in  countries  as  old 
as  the  Laurentian  or  the 
New  England  highland. 
In  the  Southern  part  of 
the  Appalachian  high- 
land, where  ice  has  not  worked, 
there  are  no  lakes,  and  falls  are 
The  streams  there  have  had  time  to 


rare  on  the  larger  rivers. 
deepen  their  channels  and  thus  drain  the  ancient  lakes. 

V- 

49.  The  St.  Lawrence  Basin. 


In  the  valleys  of  the  low  plateau  are  many  lakes  and 
swamps  through  which  streams  flow.  Near  these  grow 
tliick  forests  that  make  traveling  very  difficult.  The 
people  travel  mostly  in  canoes  through  lakes  and  streams, 
thus  avoiding  the  swamps  and  forests. 

The  winter  winds  which  reach  the  peninsula  of  Labrador,  from 
over  the  northern  lands,  are  cold  and  piexcing.  The  winds  which 
blow  over  it  from  the  sea  are  always  chilly,  for  a cold  polar  current 
sweeps  past  this  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Many  fur-bearing  animals  are  found  in  this  desolate  region. 
Among  these  are  beavers,  foxes,  martens  and  muskrats.  Two 
species  of  large  deer,  the  moose  and  the  caribou,  graze  on 
mosses  and  tender  shoots  of  trees  in  this  cold  country.  See 
pictures  on  poge  50.  IJucks,  geese  and  other  seafowF  abound 
along  the  rocky  sliores. 

As  the  winters  are  severe,  the  rocky  uplands  rugged  and 
the  valleys  swampy,  the  old  highland  is  thinly  settled.  The 
few  thousand  Indians  and  still  fewer  white  people  who  make 
their  hornes  in  that  cold  country  live  by  hunting. 

South  and  west  of  Hudson  bay,  the  highland 
rises  but  little  above  the  neighboring  plains. 

Far  to  the  north  and  northeast  of  the  Laurentian 
highland  are  many  large  islands.  Ages  ago  these 
were  probably  part  of  the  continent  and  were  after- 
wards  separated  from  it  by  the  sinking  of  the  land. 

The  largest  of  these  islands  is  Greenland.  What  have 
you  read  about  the  great  ice-sheet  of  Greenland  ? 

The  creeping  ice  scrapes  away  the  rock  waste 
beneath,  and  rubs  the  rocks  round  and  smooth,  — 
scratching  tliem  with  stones  and  sand  that  are  dragged 
along.  See  picture  of  rounded  rocks,  page  10. 


The  Great  Lakes  fill  hollows  on  the  southward  slope 
from  the  Laurentian  highland.  These  lakes  and  the 
St.  Lawrence  river,  with  all  the  streams  flowing  into 
them,  form  the  St.  Lawrence  system. 

The  basins  of  the  Great  Lakes  were  deepened,  though  not  wholly 
formed,  by  the  rubbing  or  icouring  of  the  ancient  ice-sheet  which 
moved  across  them  from  the  Laurentian  highland. 


Work  ol  Beavers. 

No  long  slopes  send 
large  rivers  to  the  Great 
Lakes,  Much  of  their 
water  supply  comes  di- 
rectly  from  rain  and 
snow.  The  bottoms  of 
all  the  lakes,  except  Erie,  de- 
scend  below  sea  level.  The  surface 
of  Lake  Superior  is  about  an  eighth  of  a 


46 


THE  ST.  LAWRENCE  BASIN. 


mile  higher  than  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
outlet  of  this  lake  is  known  as  St.  Marys  strait.  It  is 
not  navigable,  because  it  descends  in  rapids  to  the  level 
of  Lake  Huron. 


Rapids  in  St.  Marys  Strait. 


Lock  in  the  " Soo  ” Canal. 


The  so-callecl  St.  Marys 
strait  is  a river  about 
sixty  miles  long.  Wliich  picture  shows  the  rapids  in  this  river  ? 
Vessels  avoid  these  rapids  by  going  through  the  “Soo”  canal.  One 
of  the  pictures  shows  a steamer  ready  to  come  from  the  canal  lock. 

There  are  no  rapids  to  prevent  vessels  from  såiling 
between  lakes  Michigan,  Huron  and  Erie,  but  between 
lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  there  is  an  abrupt  descent  of  the 
upland  country,  in  a low  bluff. 

Niagara  river,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Erie,  originally  fell  over  the 
northern  edge  of  this  upland,  thus  forming  the  falls  of  Niagara. 
Since  then  the  river  has  slowly  cut  a deep  gorge  back  into  the 
bluff,  — the  falls  always  keeping  at  the  head  of  the  gorge.  They 
are  now  about  six  miles  back  from  the  edge  of  the  bluff. 

The  falls  of  Niagara  are  about  three  fourths  of  a mile  wide  and 
one  liundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  Below  the  falls,  the  river  rushes 
through  its  long  gorge,  making  rapids  of  great  size  and  grandeur. 


The  eliffs  of  Niagara  consist  of  layers  of  limestone  on  softer  rock. 
From  time  to  time,  as  the  lower  rock  is  worn  away,  huge  masses  of 
limestone  break  off  and  fall  into  the  gorge.  The  stream  must  have 
worked  thousands  of  years  to  cut  this  great  valley,  yet  that  time  is 
short  compared  with  the  period  during  wliich 
the  Hudson  river  was  cutting  its  long  gorge. 

A large  water  way,  known  as  the 
Welland  canal,  has  been  made  to  join 
lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

From  Lake  Ontario  the  St.  Lawrence 
river  forms  a water  way  to  the  sea. 
The  river  has  rapids,  but  canals  have 
been  built  past  tliem.  Going  down 
the  stream,  many  steamers  pass  over  the  rapids.  The 
city  of  Montreal  is  below  the  lowest  rapids,  near  the 
head  of  the  drowned  part  of  the  valley.  That  city 
marks  the  limit  of  navigation  for  ocean  steamers  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  river. 

Where  is  Lake  Champlain  ? Into  wliat  river  does  its  outlet 
flow  ? What  group  of  mounfains  is  west  of  this  lake  ? 

The  rocks 
of  theAdiron- 
dack  moun- 
tains  and  of 
the  highland 
south  and 
west  of  Lake 
Superior  are 
like  those  in 
the  Lauren- 
tian  highland.  Nlagara  Gorge' 

They  are  roots  of  old  worn-down  mountain  ranges,  and 
the  land  surface  wliich  long  ago  was  high  above  the  mineral 
layers  is  now  brought  down  close  to  them.  Tjotli  these 
small  highlands  yield  large  quantities  of  iron  ore.  The 
rocks  of  the  old  region  south  of  Lake  Superior  contain  not 
only  the  richest  known  deposits  of  iron  ore,  but  also  much 
copper. 

The  lightly-dotted  line  shown  a little  south  of  Lake  Superior  on 
the  map,  page  32,  marks  off  a district  that  is  drained  by  streams  of 
the  Mississippi  system,  yet  the  district  is  part  of  the  old  deep-worn 
highland  described  above.  A lightly-dotted  line  has  also  been 
placed  round  the  Adirondack  highland,  yet  parts  of  it  belong  to 
the  Hudson  and  St.  Lawrence  basins. 


Niagara  Falls. 


The  slopes  around  the  upper  three  Great  Lakes  form 
the  leading  lumber  district  in  our  country.  The  forests 
yield  both  hard  and  soft  woods,  such  as  are  used  in 
making  furniture  and  in  building  houses. 

The  St.  Lawrence  system  is  the  best  inland  water  way 
in  the  world.  Hundreds  of  large  steamers  and  other 
vessels  help  carry  on  trade  between  the  lake  ports  and 
bear  away  many  of  the  products  of  the  mines,  the  farms, 
the  forests  and  the  workshops. 

The  largest  of  all  these  ports  is  Chicago.  This  city  has 
grown  very  rapidly,  because  it  is  witliin  easy  reacli  of 


THE  WESTERN  PLAINS. 


47 


In  some  places,  bench  lands  rise  high  above  the  general 
level  of  the  country.  ”~ 

Describe  the  eourse  of  the  Missouri  river.  This  stream  from 
its  mountain  source  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico  is  thought  to  be  the 
longest  on  the  earth.  The  nanie  of  the  stream  is  often  written 
MissourirMississippi,  because  the  Missouri  joins  the  Mississippi 
long  before  the  latter  reaches  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  Describe  the 
eourse  of  the  Arkansas  river. 

Large  rivers  like  the  Missouri  and  the  Mississippi  often  do  much 
damage  when  flooded.  They  sometimes  cut  into  their  banks, — 
destroying  fields  and  washiug  away  railroads. 

Jetties  are  built  in  some  places  to  protect  the  river  banks. 
One  of  the  pietures  on  this  page  shows  a simple  form  of  jetty.  It 
consists  of  branches  woven  among  stakes  that  are  driven  into  the 


These  plains  are  far  inland  and  therefore  receive  little 
rain.  The  westerly  winds  lose  most  of  their  moisture 
in  Crossing  the  Rocky  Mountain  highland. 

The  northern  part  of  the  region  ineludes  the  frozen 
plqxps  near  the  Arctic  ocean.  See  Lesson  52. 

South  of  the  frozen  portion  are  the  ivooded  plains  in 
Canada.  The  rainfall  there  is  not  heavy,  but  it  has  time 
to  sink  into  the  soil,  for  the  hot  season  is  short  and  the 
cold  ground  dries  slowly.  Snow  lies  in  the  forests  for 
several  months  each  year.  Large  streams  flow  eastward 
from  this  region. 

In  our  own  country,  south  of  the  wooded  plains,  lie 
the  dry  Western  plains.  Parts  of  these  plains,  near  the 
mountains,  are  more  than  a mile  above  sea  level. 

F rom  the  Rocky  mountains  many  Targe  rivers  flow  east- 
ward aeross  the  dry_plains.  These  streams  run  swiftly 
down  their  sandy  valleys  and  carry  an  immense  quantity 
of  land  waste.  Dry  upland  plains  stretch  froinnne  valley 
to  another.  Most  of  these  uplands  are  gently  rolling. 


river  bed.  The  jetties  not  only  prevent  the  swift  currents  from 
striking  the  bank,  but  they  also  cause  the  muddy  water  to  eddy  into 
still  places  between  them  and  there  degosit  mud  or  sand. 

Some  river  banks  are  protected  by  interwoven  branches,  making 
mattress  work  like  that  shown  in  the  pieture.  Powerful  force 
pumps  are  first  used  to  slope  the  banks.  Then  the  mattress  is 
made  and  sunk,  — reaching  from  flood  level  far  down  upon  the 
river  bed.  Swift  currents  cannot  cut  through  the  mattress  work 
till  it  is  worn  out. 

The  dry  plains  are  not  a desfert,  nor  are  they  fertile. 
Sagebrusli  thrives  in  many  places,  and  scanty  grass  grows 
almost  everywhere.  The  best  lands  are  in  the  large  river 
valleys,  or  near  the  mountains  where  many  small  streams 
flow.  There  are  good  farms  where  canals  and  ditehes 
have  been  made  to  turn  aside  river-water  over  the  land. 


forests  around  the  upper  lakes,  of  farms  and  pasture 
lands  in  the  central  plain,  of  iron  mines  near  Lake 
Superior,  and  of  coal  fields  in  the  plain  on  the  south. 

Locate  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  Detroit  and  Milwaukee. 
These  lake  ports  are  smaller  than  Chicago,  but  they 
resemble  it  in  their  trade. 


50.  The  Western  Plains. 

Except  in  the  far  north,  the  part  of  the  great  central 
plain  lying  next  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains  has  a long 
gradual  slope  eastward 


48 


THE  PRAIRIES. 


Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  get  water  from  wells  to  jrri- 
gate  the  dry  plains,  but  the  supply  of  ground  water  is  so  small 
that  a great  part  of  the  plains  cannot  be  irrigated. 

Large  herds  of  cattle  graze  on  the  western  plains. 
Kansas  City,  Kansas,  has  grown  to  be  a leading  market 
for  these  cattle,  and  that  city  sup- 
plies  large  quantities  of 
beef  to  other  parts  of  the 
country.  Denver  is 
the  leading  city  of 
the  plains. 


about  as  fast  as  a railroad  train,  give  brief  rains  to  beits  of 
country  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  miles  wide,  but  leave  dry  regions 
on  either  side,  until  other  storms  come  to  water  them. 

Yiolent  squalls  usually  blow  out  from  the  storms,  in  front  of 
the  rain.  Destructive  tornadoes  sometimes  occur  beneath  the  storm- 
clouds.  Houses  are  often  blown  down,  and  trees  are  uprooted. 

The  soil  over  much  of  the 
prairie  region  is  line,  deep 
and  rich. 
It  has 
been  made 
in  various 
ways.  In 
the  South- 
ern part 
of  the 
prairies, 
the  sur- 
face  has 


The  Black  hills  form  a small  mountain  area  rising  out 
of  the  plains.  There  are  valuable  gold  mines  in  the  old 
rocks  of  these  so-ealled  hills. 

The  Southern  end  of  the  dry  plains  is  known 
as  the  Stcikecl- plain.1  This  is  a broad  sinooth 
upland,  high  enough  to  be  called  a plateau. 

In  summer,  hot  Southwest  winds  often  blow  from  over  the 
Staked  plain.  They  are  dry  and  parching.  Crops  west  of  the 
Mississippi  river  are  sometimes  greatly  injured  by  these  hot  blasts. 

What  river  forms  part  of  the  Southern  boundary  of  our  country  ? 

The  Western  plains  are  thinly  settled,  because  so  little 
of  the  land  receives  water  enough  to  make  it  productive. 

51.  The  Prairies. 

The  lowlands  in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  consist  of 
level  or  rolling  grassy  plains,  called  prairies.  They  merge 
into  forest  lands  on  the  east  and  south, 
into  dry  plains  on  the  west,  and  into  colder 
plains  on  the  north. 

The  chief  rivers  in  the  prairie  region  have 
cut  shallow  valleys  in  the  upland  through 
which  they  flow.  The  valieys  are  wider 
and  more  numerous  in  the  Southern  prairies 
than  in  the  northern. 


Most  of  thg  rain  which  falla  in  the 
prairies  is  brought  by  summer  winds 
from  over  the  warm  gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  heaviest  rains  fall  on  the  parts 
of  the  prairies  east  of  the  Mississippi.  For 
some  distance  west  of  the  river  there  is  plenty  coyote. 
of  rain ; but  still  farther  west,  towards  the  dry  plains, 
the  crops  often  suifer  in  periods  of  drouth. 

The  summer  rains  of  the  prairies  generally  fall  from  thunder- 
storms.  Great  cloud-masses  several  miles  high,  moving  eastward 

1 Years  ago,  stakes  were  set  in  the  plain,  to  guide  travelers  across  it. 


for  long  ages  been  ’'  a.'  . 

exposed  to  the  weather.  ~ dry  plains 

The  slopes  being  gentle,  the  soil  moves  away  very  slowly  and 
therefore  has  time  to  form  to  a great  depth. 

The  northern  part  of  the  prairie  region  was  once  covered  by  the 
great  ice-sheet  which  moved  from  the  Laurentian  highland  across 
the  St.  Lawrence  valley.  This  ice-sheet  dragged  much  rock  waste 
into  the  prairies,  spreading  it  out  as  a deep  layer  of  soil.  The 
waste  was  scraped  from  rocks  of  many  kinds,  and  was 
ground  and  mixed  under  the  ice.  Soil  of  this  kind  is 
called  till.  The  sheet  of  till  has  buried  many  old 
valleys  and  has  made  the  northern  part  of  the 
prairies  smoother  than  it  was  before  the  ice-sheet 
came,  and  smoother  than  the  Southern  parts 
of  the  prairie  region  now  are. 

A third  kind  of  prairie  soil  is  the  sediment 
of  shallow  lakes  that  covered  parts  of  the 
surface,  after  the  ice-sheet  had  melted  back. 
Some  of  the  finest  and  richest  prairie  soils 
are  of  this  kind. 

The  prairies  in  the  valley  of  the  Red  river 
of  the  North  were  thus  formed.  These 
prairies  lie  partly  within  the  United  States 
and  also  extend  northward  far  beyond  the 
border  of  our  country,  into  Canada. 

Ages  ago  a great  lake  covered  the  region 
now  known  as  the  Red  river  prairies.  Muddy 
streams  flowed  into  the  lake,  and  fine  soil  settled  evenly  over  the 
bottom.  When  the  lake  was  drained,  the  smooth  bottom  became  a 
levef  plain.  The  water  flowed  off  long  ago,  and  yet  the  plain  is  so 
young  that  streams  have  hardly  cut  its  surface.  The  Red  river 
prairies  form  part  of  the  Nelson  river  basin. 


THE  NORTHERN  PLAINS. 


49 


This  region  is  famous  for  its  wheat.  One  of  the  jyctures  below, 
marked  Dakota  farm,  shows  a part  of  the  lake  plain  that  is  in  the 
United  States. 

SouflTof  each  of  the  Great  Lakes  there  are  beits  of  low  hills 
made  of  rock  waste  dragged  there  by  the  ancient  ice-sheet  which 
erept  from-  the  snowy  Laurentian  highland.  These  hills  are  old 
moraines  heaped  on  the  surface  of  the  country  at  the  melting  front 
of  the  ice-sheet.  Many  small  lakes  lie  in  hollows  among  the 
hjlls.  Farther  south,  where  the  ice  did  not  reach,  lakes  are  rare. 

West  of  Lake  Michigan  are  found  a great  number  of  (Irumlins, 
or  rounded  glacial  hills.  These  were  formed  under  the  ice-sheet 
which~TnTilt  thehilly  moraines  a little  farther  south.  Another 
remarkable  group  of  drumlins  occurs  south  of  Lake  Ontario,1  along 
the  line  of  the  Erie  canal. 

The  prairies  form  one  of  the  richest  grain  regions  in 
the  world.  Wheat  and  corn  are  leading  products.  The 
former  is  hardy,  but  the  latter  is  easily  killed  by  frost ; 

hence,  the  warmer  

prairies  in 


the  south  yield  the  more 
corn,  while  those  in  the  cooler  half  lead  in  harvests  of 
wheat. 

Few  trees  grow  wild  in  the  prairies,  except  along  the 
streams,  but  many  trees  have  been  set  out  on  the  prairie 
farms.  Most  forest  trees  thrive  best  in  loose  and  coarse 
soil,  like  that  found  on  hills  or  on  old  mountain  slopes. 
The  prairie  soil  is  very  fine  and  firm,  but  yields  readily 
to  the  plow. 

Water  sinks  slowly  into  this  compact  soil.  Heavy 
rains  therefore  swell  the  streams.  In  springtime,  before 
the  frozen  soil  has  thawed,  rains  and  melting  snow  often 
cause  the  rivers  to  spread  far  and  wide  over  their  flood 
plains.  These  floods  often  do  much  damage,  but  they 
also  leave  coatings  of  fine  soil  on  the  plains. 

1 In  riding  between  Rochester  and  Syracuse,  south  of  Lake  Ontario, 
many  drumlins  may  be  seen. 


Most  of  the  cattle  and  liogs  in  our  country  are  raised 
on  the  prairies,  where  there  is  plenty  of  grass  and  corn. 
In  the  prairies  Southwest  of  Lake  Michigan/ are  extensive 
coal  fields  yielding  immense  quantities  of  so£t  coal. 

Chicago  has  grown  to  be  the  greatest  meat-packing 
center  and  grain  market  in  the  world,  because  the  city 
is  so  near  the  fertile  prairies,  and  because  the  railroad 
and  steamer  lines  centering  at  Chicago  reach  so  large  a 
part  of  our  country. 

Minneapolis  has  fine  water  power  and  is  near  the 
wheat  regions.  This  city  therefore  leads  the  world  in 
making  flour. 

The  great  agricultural  region  of  the  middle  Mississippi 
valley  has  its  chief  trade  center  at  St.  Louif^/  This  city 
has  a very  large  traffic  by  railroads  on  all  sides  and  by 
boats  down  the  great  river. 

Besides  the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi 
basin  there  is  a region  east  of  the 
Staked  plain,  known  as  the  Texas  prai- 
ries. Much  of  this  prairie  region  is  tree- 
less  but  not  barren  like  the  dry  plains 


west  of  it. 
The  Texas  prai- 
ries are  used  more  for 
farming  than  for  grazing. 
Their  surface  is  more 
varied  than  that  of  the 
prairies  of  the  upper  Mississippi  valley. 

52.  The  Northern  Plain. 

The  Northern  plain  of  North  America  extends  from  the 
prairies  to  the  Arctic  coast,  and  lies  mostly  in  tiie  cold 
belt.  The  summers  are  short ; the  winters  are  long  and 
severe.  Near  the  Arctic  shore,  the  daylight  of  summer 
is  contihuous  for  six  or  eight  weeks.  The  darkness  of 
winter  lasts  for  an  equalTength  of  time. 

In  the  far  north  the  soil  is  frozen  to  a great  depth. 
In  summer  it  thaws  for  only  a few  inches  below  the  sur- 
face. The  region  is  cold  and  desolate  nearly  all  the  year. 

Along  the  Arctic  shore~there  are  low  ancl  level  plains,  called 
tundrasj  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  miles  wide.  During  the  short 
summer  these  plains  become  swampy,  and  are  then  covered  witli 
mosses  and  lichens,  rushes  and  ferns,  as  well  as  with  several  kinds 
of  small  flowering  plants,  but  there  are  no  forests  in  the  tundras. 


50 


GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN. 


The  Mackenzie  river  flows  from  the  cool  belt  far  into 
the  cold  belt.  When  the  spring  thawing  begins  in  the 
Southern  part  of  the  Mackenzie  basin,  the  water  runs 
northward  till  checked  by  the  ice  which  at  that  time  clogs 
the  channels.  The  streams  then  spread 
far  over  their  flood  plains,  which  remain 
covered  till  the  ice-jams  in  the  north  melt 
away  and  allow  the  flood-water  to  rurTTJff. 

Floods  of  this  kind  occur  each  year,  not  only 
in  the  Mackenzie  basin,  but  also  in  every  river 
valley  whosé  main  stream  flows  northward  into 
the  Arctic  ocean. 

Large  herds  of  reindeer,  ealled  caribou . roam 
over  the  cold  plain  in  the  far  north.  In  summer 
they  feed  on  the  lichens,  mosses  and  stunted 
shrubs  which  grow  along  the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  ocean.  Many  thousand  caribou  live  in 
the  so-called  Barren  Lands  west  of  Hudson  bay. 

As  the  cold  season  approaches,  the  deer  travel 
southward  into  forest  regions  where  they  can 
find  food  and  shelter. 


53.  Gulf  Coastal  Plain. 

The  broad  lowland  which  follows  the  seacoast  from 
the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Hudson  river1  forrns  one  great 
Coastal  plain.  The  part  which  borders  on  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  slopes  mainly  towards  the  south,  but  the 
Atlantic  Coastal  plain  slopes  towards  the  southeast. 
REINOEEB  In  all  parts  the  streams  flow  mostly  at  right 
angles  with  the  coast,  because  that  is  the 
direction  of  the  slope  which  the  land 
took  when  it  rose  from  the  sea. 

The  Gulf  Coastal  plain  is  known  as 
the  Southern  plain.  The  greater  part 
of  this  plain  is  low  rolling  upland.  It 
is  cut  into  eastern  and  western  parts 
by  the  wide  flood  plain  of  the 
Mississippi  river. 


Small  tribes  of  Indians  live  on  the 
bleak  Northern  plains,  and  small  bands 
of  Eskimos  are  found  along  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  ocean  and  Hudson  bay. 

To  these  people,  the  deer  are  of  great 
value.  The  flesh  of  the  caribou  is  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  food,  and  the  skins  are  used 
in  making  clothing  and  tents.  Even  the 
bones  are  shap^d  into  simple  tools  and 
weapons. 

The  basin  of  the  Nelson  river  is  mostly 
in  the  cool  belt.  The  Southern  part  of  that 
basin  includes  the  wide  fertile  prairies  of  the 
Red  river  valley,  — famous  for  their  crops  of  wheat; 
for  although  the  winters  are  verv  cold,  the  summers 
have  long  days  of  strong  sunshine,  and  plants'  grow  there 
very  rapidly. 

It  is  chiefly  from  this  broad  interior  region  that  the  eastern  and 
Southern  parts  of  our  country  receive  cold  winds  in  winter.  In 
that  season  the  wide  cover  of  snow  over  the  interior  plains  becomes 
intensely  cold.  The  lower  air  is  then  greatly  ccoled  and  tends  to 
flow  outward  to  the  warmer  regions. 

The  cold  waves  are  especially  severe  when 
one  of  the  whirling  westerly  storms  moves  to 
the  Appalachian  highland,  and  the  cold  winds 
flow  rapidly  southward  beliind  it.  Freezing  air 
may  then  be  carried  even  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
and  to  the  southeast  coast  of  our  country. 

The  western  and  nor1<hern  parts  of  the 
Nelson  b astri  are  thinly  settled.  They 
are  forested  and  abound  in  many  kinds 
of  fur-bearing  animals,  such  as  beavers,  otters  and  ermjpes. 

Several  large  lakes  extend  northwestward  in  the  basins  of  the 
Nelson  and  Mackenzie  rivers.  These  bodies  of  water,  together 
with  the  Great  Lakes,  form  a remarkable  chain  stretching  along  the 
south  and  Southwest  borders  of  the  old  Laurentian  hTgTdsnd. 


The  part  near  the  shore  is  young, 
but  farther  inland  the  plain  is  older 
and  much  worn  by  streams  that  have 
extended  their  courses  across  it 
from  the  higher  and  older  interior. 


A large  part  of  the  Gulf 
coast  is  low,  sandy  and  bar- 
ren. The  shallow  waters 
along  the  shore  afford  few 
landing  places  for  large  vessels. 
The  harbors  are  at  the  river 
moutlis  or  as  far  upstream  as 
the  tides  are  felt. 


On  the  western  side  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  long 
sand  bars  have  been  formed  offshore  by  the  waves. 
Very  few  inlets  to  the  inclosed  lagoons  are  held  open 
through  the  bars,  because  the  tides  there  are  weak.  Galves- 
ton,  the  chief  port  of  this  part  of  the  coast,  is  built  on  the  end  of 
one  of  these  sand  bars. 


The  Southern  plain  is  in  the  warm  belt  and  receives 
heavy  rainfall  from  moist  winds  that  blow  from  over  the 
gulf  of  Mexico.  The  summers  are  long  and  hot;  the 
winters  are  short  and  mild,  except  in  the  northern  por- 
tion. Near  the  Gulf  coast,  frosts  are  rare  and  snow  is 
almost  unknown. 

It  is  from  this  region  and  from  over  the 
warm  waters  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico  that  the 
“hot  waves”  of  summer  are  chiefly  drawn  to 
the  upper  Mississippi  and  Ohio  valleys.  These 
hot  waves  are  southerly  winds  drawn  inland  on 
the  front  of  advancing  whirls  in  the  westerly 
winds.  The  dampness  of  the  Gulf  winds  makes 
their  heat  the  more  oppressive. 

Arctic  ptarmigan.  Nearly  all  parts  of  the  Southern  plain 

were  at  one  time  wooded,  and  forests  still  cover  the 
greater  portion  of  the  region.  Pine  lumber  is  a valuable 
product  of  these  forests. 

1 Long  Island,  Cape  Cod,  and  the  lowland  east  of  Mexico,  form  narrow 
extensions  of  this  great  coastal  plain. 


ATLANTIC  COASTAL  PLAIN. 


51 


Large  districts  in  tlie  South  have  been  cleared  of  trees 
and  now  rank  among  the  most  productive  parts  of  our 
country.  Cotton  is  the  leading  crop  on  these  cleared  lands. 

The  cotton  plant  needs  very  long  and  hot  summers  to  ripen  its 
seeds  and  to  produce  the  fiber  which  grows  around  them.  Cotton 
fiber  is  made  into  cloth,  thread  and  rope.  In  a later  lesson  we 
shall  learn  much  more  about  this  useful  plant. 

Rice  thrives  on  low  flood  plains  and  on  the  swainpy 
borders  of  lagoons  behind  Coastal  sand  bars.  At  times 
the  rice  fields  must  be  flooded  to  make  the  plants  grow. 


filled  with  standing  water,  forming  a eurved  lagoon.  Many  lagoons 
on  the  wide  flood  plain  show  former  courses  of  the  river. 

For  ages  the  Mississippi  river  has  carried  down  large  quantities 
of  silt  and  built  its  flood  plain  far  out  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
making  a great  delta.  Every  minute  this  broad  stream  carries 
into  the  gulf  of  Mexico  enough  silt  to  fill  an  ordinary  schoolroom. 

The  low  delta  plain  comprises  thousands  of  square  miles.  Many 
parts  are  marshes  and  wooded  swamps.  Other  parts  are  wide 
stretches  of  grass  land.  Many  distributary  streams  cross  the  delta, 
and  a large  number  of  lakes  lie  in  shallow  liollows  between  them. 
Between  the  moutlis  of  the  distributaries  are  large  salt  bays  that 
the  river  has  not  yet  filled  with  silt.; 


New  Orleans,  the  largest  city  in  the  South,  and  the 
only  large  city  on  the  flood  plain  of 
the  lower  Mississippi,  is  sit- 
uated  about  one 
hundred  miles 
above  the 


Below  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio 
river,  the  Mississippi  has  cut  a 
broad  valley  in  the  Coastal  plain  and 
has  spread  out  a flood  plain  on  the 
valley  floor,  from  thirty  to  fifty  miles 
wide.  For  about  a thousand  miles  the 
Mississippi  river  winds  through  the  great 
flood  plain,  inclosed  on  the  east  and  west  by 
low  bluffs  that  border  the  Coastal  plain. 

When  heavy  spring  rains  fall  and  snow  melts  in  the  north,  the 
great  river  overflows  parts  of  its  lowland  far  and  wide.  In  times 
of  flood,  the  river  deposits  more  silt  near  the  main  channel  than 
farther  away,  and  the  surface  of  the  flood  plain  therefore  slopes 
gently  away  from  the  river. 

The  small  rivers  coming  from  the  Coastal  plain  into  the  flood 
plain  of  the  Mississippi  cannot  keep  their  course  up  the  gentle  side- 
slopes  of  the  flood  plain  to  the  main  river,  so  they  turn  down  the 
valley,  near  the  bluffs.  One  of  these  rivers,  the  Yazoo,  is  shown  on 
the  relief  map  on  page  32. 

Banks  of  earth,  called  levees,  have  been  built  for  hundreds  of 
miles  along  the  great  river,  to  keep  the  rising  water  from  flood- 
ing  the  fields.  In  times  of  heavy  floods  the  lev.ees  are  often 
broken  ; and  as  the  flood  plain  slopes  away  from  the  river, 
the  lowlands  are  quickly  flooded.  Thousands  of  acres  of  cotton, 
sugar  cane  and  grain  are  then  destroyed.  A break  in  the  levee  is 
called  a crevasse. 

Villages  on  the  flood  plain  are  often  built  close  along  the  river 
banks,  where  there  is  the  least  danger  from  floods,  because  the 
banks  are  the  highest  parts  of  the  flood  plain. 

The  Mississippi  river  meanders,  or  flows  in  long  bends  or  loops, 
in  the  flood  plain.  Year  after  year  the  river  wears  away  the  necks 
of  the  loops,  now  and  then  cutting  across  one  of  them.  Then  the 
stream  flows  in  its  new  channel,  and  the  deserted  part  is  left 


mouth  of  the  great  river.  This  city  has 
a large  trade  in  cotton,  sugar,  rice  and  other  products 
of  the  Southern  plain.  Several  other  cities,  such  as 
Memphis  and  Vicksburg,  are  built  where  the  Mississippi 
river  flows  against  the  bluffs.  These  river  ports  are 
important  cotton  markets. 


54.  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain.1 


Southeast  of  the  piedmont  belt  lies  the  Atlantic  Coastal 
plain.  As  in  the  Gulf  Coastal  plain,  the  region  near  the 
sea  is  young  and  smooth.  while  the  plain  farther  inland  is 
older  and  is  more  deeply  and  widely  cut  by  streams  that 
flow  across  it  from  the  Appalachian  highland. 

The  widest  part  of  the  Atlantic  Coastal  plain  is  south- 
east of  the  Carolina  highland.  Thence  the  plain  narrows 

1 Teachers  who  so  prefer  will  find  no  difficulty  in  going  from  this  lesson 
directly  to  the  later  lessons  on  the  United  States,  — its  people,  resources, 
commerce,  etc.  Most  teachers,  however,  will  doubtless  continue  to  present 
the  topics  in  the  order  in  which  they  appear. 


52 


ATLANTIC  COASTAL  PLAIN. 


Old  Coastline. 


New  Coastline  showing  Bars. 


the  warm  Gulf  stream 
help  to  make  the 
winters  of  tliis  Coastal 
plain  milder  than  those  of  the  inland  regions  in  the  same 
latitude. 

The  long  Atlantic  Coastal  plain  has  plenty  of  rainfall. 
It  is  brought  by  winds  from  over  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Atlantic  ocean. 

The  liigher  and  older  part  of  the  Coastal  plain,  where 
the  rivers  have  worn  wide  valleys  and  made  fertile  flood 
plains,  is  rolling  or  hilly.  The 
Southern  half  of  tliis  upland 
country,  like  the  piedmont  belt 
'which  adjoins  it,  is  famous  for 
its  cotton  crops.  Farther 
north,  tobacco  is  a leading 
crop  of  the  uplands  and  the 
piedmont.  The  soil  is  also 
suited  to  the  growth  of 
grain. 

In  the  lower  and  younger 
part  of  the  Coastal  plain,  where 
the  land  is  flat  and  little  worn, 
the  rivers  are  sluggish. 

Large  parts  of  the  younger 
Coastal  plain  are  covered 
with  forests  of  pine.  These 
yield  turpentine,  rosin  and 
lumber.  This  lower  part 
of  the  plain  is  also  noted  for  its  fruit 
groves,  — oranges  in  the  south  and 
peaclies  in  the  north.  Great  quantities  of  early 
vegetables  are  raised  in  the  younger  Coastal  plain 
and  are  sliipped  mostly  to  the  large  northern  cities. 

When  the  smooth  sea-bottom  was  lifted  up  to  form  the 
Atlantic  Coastal  plain,  it  made  a very  regular  coastline. 
Since  valleys  were  worn  in  the  plain,  the  northern  and 
middle  portions  have  partly  sunk  beneath  the  sea,  drown- 


In  the  Southern  part  of  the  plain,  the  land  slopes  so 
gently  under  the  sea  that  good  harbors  are  found  only 
in  the  river  mouths.  Sand  bars,  built  by  waves,  lie  along 
the  coast  and  partly  inclose  many  sounds.  Inlets  through 
the  sand  bars  are  kept  open  by  tidal  currents. 

The  best  cotton  in  the  world  grows  on  some  of  these 
border  islands  and  on  the  shores  of  the  mainland  near  by. 
The  soil  is  sandy,  but  the  plants  which  grow  in  it  produce 
long  and  fine  fibers. 

Large  quantities  of  rice  are  raised  in  the  wet  lands  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Coastal  plain,  as  well  as 
in  the  Gulf  Coastal  plain.  This  grain  thrives  in  lagoon 
swamps  inside  the  sand  bars,  and  in  river  swamps  which 
at  certain  times  can  be  flooded  or  drained. 

Charleston  and  Savannah  are  im- 
portant ports  for  cotton,  rice  and 
pine  products.  These  cities  are  on 
tidal  rivers  and  have  good  harbors. 

The  peninsula  of  Florida,  lying  between 
the  gulf  and  the  ocean,  is  chiefly  a Coastal 
plain  formed  by  the  uplifting.  of  the  sea- 
bottom,  but  partly  also  the  work  of 
coral  polyps.  Tiny  creatures  of  this 
kind,  in  countless  numbers,  are  still 
very  active  in  building  the  Southern 
portion  of  the  peninsula  farther  out 
into  the  warm  Gulf  stream. 

Southeast  of  Florida  lie  thé  low 
Bahama  islands.1  These  consist 
mainly  of  huge  banks  of  shell  and 
coral  limestone.  Only  small  parts 
of  the  great  banks  rise  above  the  sea. 


The  islands  of  the  West 

Rice  Culture. 

Indies  are  mostly  the  upper 
portions  of  mountainous  country  that  has  been 
partly  drowned.  The  flooded  valleys  in  this 
region  form  many  large  and  deep  harbors. 

The  city  of  Havana,  on  one  of  these  drowned  valleys,  is  the 
chief  port  of  Cuba  and  the  largest  seaport  in  the  West  Indies. 

Many  of  the  small  islands  of  the  West  Indies  stretching  in  a 
chain  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America  are  almost  wholly 
volcanic.  These  are  known  as  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

1 Neither  the  Bahamas  nor  the  West  Indies  are  parts  of  the  Coastal 
plain,  but  owing  to  their  position  they  may  be  studied  liere. 


northeastward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  where 
the  piedmont  belt  reaches  the  coast. 

The  Southern  part  of  this  Coastal  plain  is  in  the  warm 
belt  and  has  seasons  like  those  of  the  Gulf  Coastal  plain. 
The  northern  part  of  the  Atlantic  Coastal  plain  has  the 

seasons  of  the  cool 
belt.  Southeast 
winds  from  over 


ing  the  lower  parts  of  the  valleys  and  thus  making  bays 
with  excellent  harbors.  Among  these  are  New  York, 
Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays.  Near  the  heads  of  these 
bays  are  situated  the  great  ports  of  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia and  Baltimore. 

Several  large  cities  are  built  on  the  rivers  along  the  line  where 
the  piedmont  belt  meets  the  Coastal  plain.  The  rivers  are  tliere 
broken  by  falls  or  rapids  that  give  fine  water  power.  In  the 
northern  and  middle  ports  of  the  Coastal  plain,  where  the  valleys 
have  been  slightly  drowned,  the  larger  streains,  as  får  as  the  falls, 
are  open  to  vessels  from  the  sea.  Richmond,  near  the  lower  falls 
of  the  James  river,  is  a good  example  of  this  class  of  cities. 


53 


This  isthmus  is  only 
about  thirty  miles 
wide,  and  a man  can  walk 
across  it  in  a day.  A rail- 
road  crosses  from  shore  to  shore.  An  attempt 
is  also  being  made  to  dig  a ship  canal  through 
the  isthmus. 


Can  you  tell  why  this  neck  of  land  was  chosen  as  tlie 
site  of  a canal  ? Why  is  a canal  needed  ? 

What  large  sea  is  north  of  this  isthmus  ? On  which 
coast  is  the  city  of  Panama  ? See  picture  on  page  55. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


55.  South  America.1 

South  America  is  not  so  large  as  North  America.  Both 
these  continents  have  the  same  general  outline,  narrowing 
towards  the  south. 

The  two  lands  resemble  each  other  in  their  relief  or 
surface  forms.  Each  has  a long  western  highland  and 
also  a great  central  plain,  with  lower  eastern  highlands. 

The  isthmus  of  Panama  joins  the  two  parts  of  America. 
Along  this  neck  of  land,  the  primary  highland  consists 
of  a hilly  ridge.  Passes  among  the  hills  are  only  about 
three  hundred  feet  above  sea  level. 

1 The  Map  Studies  on  page  55  are  to  precede  this  lesson.  Refer  often 
to  the  relief  maps.  Locate  every  place  named  in  the  text. 


The  Andes  highland  consists  of  a great  moun- 
tain  system,  with  many  long  and  high  valleys 
between  its  ranges.  This  highland  extends  about 
one  fifth  of  the  way  round  the  earth. 

The  west  slope  of  the  Andes  is  short  and  in  most 
parts  steep.  East  of  this  highland  lie  broad  plains.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Amazon  are  the  selvas,  or  forest  plains. 
Other  parts  of  the  plains  are  grass  lands. 

The  great  plains  are  broken  on  the  northeast  by  the 
highland  of  Guiana,  and  on  the  southeast  by  the  high- 
land of  Brazil.  These  are  much  lower  than  the  Andes. 

_ The  north  and  middle  parts  of  South  America  are  in 
the  trade  wind  beits  and  therefore  have  frequent  rains 
wherever  these  winds  rise  over  the  mountains.  The 
equatorial  rain  belt  also  shifts  north  and  south  across 
the  northern  half  of  the  continent. 

The  Southern  part  of  the  continent  reaches  far  into 
the  cool  belt,  in  the  path  of  the  stormy  westerly  winds. 

The  warm  equatorial  currents  of  the  Atlantic,  moving  westward 
under  the  trade  winds,  divide  on  the  eastern  point  of  South  America 
and  sweep  along  the  northeast  and  southeast  coasts. 

South  America  extends  far  into  the  Southern  ocean  and  turns 
a great  volume  of  cold  water  northward  along  the  west  coast.  The 
winds  which  blow  ashore  from  over  this  current  are  cold  in  the 
south,  but  become  warmer  towards  the  equator. 


RELIEP  MAP  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


MAP  STUDIES. 


55 


Where  is  the  Guiana  highland?  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than 
the  highland  of  Brazil  ? 

On  which  side  of  the  Andes  is  the  great  plain  of  South  America? 
What  highlands  are  on  the  northeast  and  the  southeast  ? 

Describe  the  course  of  the  Amazon  river.  In  which  heat  belt 
does  the  greater  part  of  the  Amazon  basin  lie  ? 

Where  is  the  La  Plata  river?  Which  river  system  drains 
the  larger  basin,  the  Amazon  or  the  La 
Plata  ?CQeTo  which  river  basin  does  the 


City  of  Panama. 


northwest  slope  of  the  Brazilian  highland  belong?  The  South- 
west slope?  Which  part  of  the  central  plain  is  drained  by  the 
Orinoco  river  ? What  highland  partly  separates  the  basin  of  the 
Orinoco  from  that  of  the  Amazon? 

Compare  the  central  plains  of  North  America  and  South 
America,  as  follows  : What  large  river  system  drains  the  Southern 
part  of  each  ? The  northern  part  ? The  nortli-eentral  part  ? 

56.  Map  Studies.1  Draw  the  general  outline  of  South  America,  — using  only  three 

straight  lines.  State  the  general  direction  of  each  coast.  Which 

In  what  direction  is  South  America  from  North  America  ?S  tjs  the  longest  ? 

What  isthmus  unites  these  continents  ? What  oceans  lie  east  and  Sketch  the  Pacific  coast  of  all  America.  See  guide  maps  in  the 
west  of  both  ? Supplement.  Which  is  the  more  regular,  the  west  coast  of  North 

On  which  side  of  the  equator  is  the  greater  part  of  South  America  or  that  of  South  America  ? 

America  ?,  Over  which  part  of  this  continent  does  the  belt  of  Sketch  the  north  coasts  of  both  continents.  Which  of  these 
equatorial  rains  shift  north  and  south  ? Which  part  is  in  the  belt  coasts  is  the  more  irregular  ? Which  is  in  the  colder  belt  ? Sketch 
of  westerly  winds  ? ^ the  east  coast  of  all  America.  Compare  the  two  parts. 

In  what  direction  does  the  Andes  highland  extend?si*  Which  Where  is  the  Caribbean  sea  ? Name  a river  flowing  north ward 
coast  does  it  follow?Vyt  Which  part  of  the  highland  looks  the  into  this  sea.  Where  is  the  San  (or  Sao)  Francisco  river  ? 
highest^  The  widest? 

Compare  the  Andes  highland 
and  the  Rocky  Mountain  high- 
land as  follows  : Which  is  the 
higher?»  The  longer  ? / The 
wider  ? In  what  respects  are 
they  alike  ? 

Where  is  the  plateau  of  Bo- 
livia ? What  lake  is  on  this 
plateau  ? 

Where  is  the  highland  of 
Brazil?  Compare  it  with  the 
Andes  highland,  in  length ; 
in  width  ; in  shape.  Compare 
the  Brazilian  and  Appalachian 
highlands  in  width  and  shape. 

1 In  the  Supplement  there  is  a 
guide  map  for  drawing  and  model- 
ing.  Read  the  note  on  page  29. 


5G 


THE  SOUTHERN  AND  MIDDLE  ANDES. 


57.  The  Southern  Andes. 


The  Southern  portion  of  the  Andes  has  partly  sunk 
beneath  the  sea.  Many  fiords  now  occupy  deep  valleys 
worn  in  the  western  slope.  Ridges  and  peaks  that  the. 
sea  did  not  entirely  cover  form  a fringe  of  islands. 

Cape  Horn  is  on  one  of  tliese  rocky  islands,  at  a little  less 
tlian  two  thirds  of  the  distance  from  the  equator  to  the  south  pole. 
Near  Cape  Horn  the  sea  is  often  made  very  rough  by  the 

stormy  west- 
erly  winds. 
For  this  rea- 
son,  steam- 
s h i p s g o 
through  the 
strait  of 
Magellan, 
instead  of 
rounding 
the  cape. 
„ „ Small  bands 

of  Indians, 

known  as  Fuegians,  live  on  the  islands  south  of  the  strait. 


About  halfway  between  Cape  Horn  and  the  sharp  bend 
in  the  Pacific  coast,  the  Andes  chain  is  very  high.  Some 
of  the  peaks  are  more  tlian  four  miles  above  sea  level 
and  are  white  with  snow  all  the  year. 

West  of  this  part  of  the  Andes  lies  the  long  and 
narrow  plain  of  iniddle  Chile.  The  land  near  the  sea  is 
rugged  but  not  very 
high.  The  plain  is 
between  this  rough 
coast  land  and  the 
Andes. 


We  have  learned  that 
the  belt  of  westerly 
winds  moves  north  and 
south  with  the  sun.  In 
the  cold  season  these 
winds  blow  nearer  the 
equator  than  in  the  hot 
season. 

The  plain  of  Chile,  like 
the  valley  of  California, 
is  crossed  by  the  stormy 
westerly  winds  in  winter, 
but  in  the  summer  season 
these  winds  move  farther 
from  the  equator,  beyond 
both  these  regions.  The 
cold  months  therefore 
form  the  wet  season. 

Owing  to  the  winds  from 
over  the  cold  ocean  current  on 
the  west,  Chile  has  no  very  hot  season. 


wheat,  barley  and  corn.  In  the  hot  months,  when  the 
westerly  winds  move  away  to  the  south,  the  streams  are 
fed  by  snow  melting  on  the  high  slopes  of  the  Andes. 
A large  amount  of  the  river  water  is  turned  into  canals 
and  ditches  to  irrigate  the  grainfields  and  vineyards. 
Val paraiso  is  the  chief  port  in  Chile. 

Below  the  snow  line  the  west  slope  of  the  Southern  Andes 
is  heavily  wooded.  Among  the  trees  are  pine  and  oak. 

The  mountain  pass  shown  in  the  picture  is  not  far  from  the 
great  volcanic  cone  of  Aconcagua.  This  pass  is  two  miles  and 
a half  above  sea  level,  — higher  than  many  clouds.  In  some  parts, 
long  slopes  of  coarse  rock  waste  rise  on  eitlier  side,  and  there  is 
neither  water  nor  fuel. 

Years  ago  the  journey  across  this  highland  was  made  on  mules 
or  on  liorses.  A railroad  now  crosses  the  Chilian  Andes. 

There  are  many  volcanoes  in  this  region,  and  earthquakes  are 
frequent. 

58.  The  Middle  Andes. 


The  plateau  of  Bolivia  lies  in  the  widest  part  of  the 
Andes.  It  is  the  highest 
plateau  in  America  and  is 
shut  in  both  on  the  east  and 
the  west  by  lofty  ranges. 

The  plateau  of  Bolivia  aver- 
ages  about  12,000  feet  in 
height.  It  is  three  times 
as  high  as  the  Great  Basin 
in  North  America. 


The  rivers  which  cross  the  plain  of  Chile  are  short.  In 
times  of  heavy  rain  and  thaw  they  overflow  parts  of  the 
plain  and  deposit  fine  soil  for  the  next  season’s  crop  of 


On  the  plateau  of  Bolivia  there  is  a large  sheet  of  water, 
known  as  Lake  Titicaca.  This  lake  has  an  outlet  which  carries 
a small  portion  of  the  water  southeastward,  but  much  of  the  water 


THE  MIDDLE  AND  NORTHERN  ANDES. 


57 


evaporates  and  the  lake  is  therefore  slightly  braekish.  The  outlet 
does  not  reach  the  sea  but  flows  into  a salt  swamp. 

Lake  Titicaca  is  in  the  northern  part  of  a region  liaving  no 
drainage  to  the  sea.  This  region  extends  southward  into  Patagonia. 

Titicaca  is  the  largest  lake  in  South  America  and  is  the  loftiest 
large  body  of  water  in  the  New  World.  It  is  only  surpassed  in  height 


Much  of  the  bark  is  stripped  from  trees.  Some  of  it  is  also 
taken  from  slender  shoots  that  spring  up  from  the  roots  of  trees 
which  have  been  cut  down.  The  descendants  of  the  Incas  gather 
large  quantities  of  the  bark. 

For  more  tlian  a thousand  miles  along  the  west  slope 
of  the  middle  Andes,  there  is  a region 
known  as  the  rainless  coast.  The  desert 
of  Atacama,  at  the 
Southern  end  of  the 
rainless  coast,  merges 
into  the  fertile  plain 
of  middle  Chile.  This 


Coal  Dock,  Lilampopata,  Lake  Titicaca. 

desert  is  at  the  northern  end  of  the  country  of  Chile. 

Although  close  by  the  sea,  the  slope  descending  to  the 
rainless  coast  is  barren  except  in  the  flood  plains  of 
several  small  rivers.  This  region,  like  the  dry  west  coast 
of  Mexico,  is  too  near  the  equator  to  feel  the  storms  of 
the  westerly  winds  and  is  not  near  enough  to  the  equator 
to  receive  rain  from  the  shifting  equatorial  rain  belt. 

The  small  rivers  of  the  west  slope  are  fed  by  rain  and 
by  snow  melting  on  the  high  parts  of  the  ranges  which 
are  reached  by  trade  winds  from  over  the  Atlantic. 

59.  The  Northern  Andes. 

\ • 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  Andes  are  many  high  and 
wide  valleys,  walled  in  by  mountain  ranges.  Some  of 
these  valleys  are  covered  with  coarse  wash  from  the 
mountains  and  are  dry  and  barren.  Others  are  coated 
with  fine  soil,  largely  made  of  weathered  volcanic  ash. 
One  of  the  most  noted  of  these  high  valleys  is  that  of 
Quito,  a little  less  than  two  miles  above  sea  level. 

The  valley  of  Quito  is  in  the  midst  of  the  most  noted  group 
of  volcanoes  in  the  world.  There  may  be  seen  cones  so  old  that 


by  some  of  the  lakes  in  the  great  central  highland  of 
Asia.  This  lake  is  nearly  as  high  as  the  mountain  pass 
about  which  we  read  in  lesson  57,  yet  the  lake  shore 
is  dotted  with  towns  and  villages.  Although  high,  the 
plateau  of  Bolivia  is  too  near  the  equator  to  be  very 
cold.  Corn  and  potatoes  grow  around  the  lake,  and 
cattle,  alpacas  and  llamas  graze  there.  The  mountains 
yield  much  silver  ore. 

Steamboats  navigate  the  lake,  and  a railroad  leads 
down  to  the  coast.  The  steamers  and  cars  connect  at  the  town  of 
Puno  which  is  shown  in  one  of  the  pictures  on  the  opposite  page. 


Northwest  of  Bolivia  the  plateau  is  neither  so  wide 
nor  quite  so  high.  In  the  Andes  of  Peru,  the  ranges 
on  the  east  are  separated  by  long  and  deep  valleys  in 
which  many  rivers  flow  to  the  lowlands.  The  rains  of 
the  trade  winds  are  very  heavy  on  this  eastern  mountain 
slope  which  is  therefore  covered  with  dense  forests. 


Many  years  ago  a band  of  white  men  from  Spain,  in  Europe, 
went  into  the  highland  of  the  middle  Andes.  They  found  there 
a race  of  Indians  whose  rulers  were  called  Incas,  and  the  same 
name  was  given  to  all  the  people  who  were  ruled  by  the  Incas. 

The  Indians  had  cities  built  of  hewn  stone,  and  their  roads 
and  bridges  were  better  than  any  that  the  Spaniards  who  went 
there  could  make.  Cuzco  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Incas,  and  it 
still  contains  ruins  of  their  beautiful  stone  work. 

The  Spaniards  were  very  cruel  to  the  Indians  and  made  slaves 
of  them.  The  descendants  of  the  Incas  still  live  on  the  highland, 
but  white  men  are  rulers  of  the  whole  land. 

Have  you  ever  tasted  quinine,  — a bitter  medicine  that  is  often 
used  to  cure  fevers  and  colds?  It  is  made  out  of  the  bark  of  cin- 
chona  trees.  These  grow  wild  in  forests  on  the  east  slope  of  the 
middle  Andes,  and  have  been  transplanted  into  other  warm  lands. 


58 


THE  HIGHLAND  OP  BRAZIL. 


Condor. 


their  sides  are  deeply  cut  by  streams,  and  cones  smooth  with  recent 
flows  of  lava  and  showers  of  ashes. 

Some  of  the  volcanoes  are  very  active.  Cotopaxi,  about  twice 
as  high  as  the  plain  of  Quito,  is  the  loftiest  active  volcano  known. 
The  summit  of  this  great  cone  is  buried  in  snow  and  is 
often  hidden  by  clouds.  Anotlier  famous  peak  is 
Chimborazo.  This  giant  cone  is  higher  than  Coto- 
paxi but  is  not  active. 

One  volcano,  narned  Sangåy,  in  this  group  is 
the  most  active  known.  It  throws  out  a 
jet  of  lava  four  or  five  times  an  hour.  The 
stream  rises  several  hundred  feet  into  the 
air.  Once  in  a while  a larger  stream  of 
molten  rock  is  belched  forth  to  a height 
of  more  than  one  third  of  a mile.  The 
country  is  shaken,  and  sounds  like  the 
heaviest  thunder  are  heard. 

Many  earthquakes  occur  in  this  volcanic 
region.  For  this  reason  most  of  the  houses 
are  built  low  and  flat.  Tliey  are  made 
chiefly  of  sun-dried  bricks.  During  one  earth- 
quake,  about  a century  ago,  forty  thousand 
people  are  said  to  have  been  killed  in  Quito. 

In  the  extreme  north  the  Andes 
divide  into  three  main  ranges.  The 
western  range  is  not  very  high  and 
it  ends  near  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  The  middle  chain 
runs  almost  due  north.  The  eastern  range  curves  for 
some  distance  along  the  northern  coast. 

The  long  valleys  east  and  west  of  the  middle  chain  are 
drained  by  the  Magdalena  river  and  its  branches.  The 

Magdalena  river  is  the 
chief  water  way  in 
Colombia  and  is  navi- 
gable  for  many  miles 
from  the  sea. 

Many  cities  and  towns 
have  been  built  in  lofty 
valleys  among  the 
northern  Andes.  These 
valleys,  although  near  the  equator,  are  too  high  to  be 
very  hot.1  The  climate  of  the  low  coast  region  is  hot 
and  unhealthful.  The  coast  towns  serve  as  ports  for  the 
upland  cities. 

The  great  vulture  called  the  condor  is  often  seen  high  up  among 
the  Andes.  This  huge  bird,  the  largest  that  flies,  lays  her  eggs  on 
bare  crags  where  they  are  generally  safe  from  enemies. 

The  condor  is  so  strong  that  it  often  kills  sheep,  young  llamas 
and  other  animals.  Por  this  reason,  the  people  who  live  in  the 
lofty  Andean  valleys  are  glad  when  one  of  these  birds  is  slain. 


western  slope,  several  smaller  streams  flow  into  the 
Pacific.  There  are  forests  on  both  sides  of  the  highland, 
but  tliose  on  the  east  are  mucli  the  denser,  as  the  rainfall 
is  there  so  heavy.  On  the  western  coast,  the  equatorial 
rain  belt  does  not  shift  very  far  south,  because 
the  heat  equator  is  there  pushed  north- 
ward  by  the  cool  ocean  current. 

60.  The  Highland  of  Brazil. 


The  highland  of  Brazil  is  shaped 
like  a triangle,  with  one  side  lying 
along  the  east  coast.  This  Coastal 
part  is  the  highest.  As  a whole, 
the  highland  of  Brazil  is  only  about 
one  sixth  as  high  as  that  of  the 
Andes,  or  about  equal  to  the  Ap- 
palachian  highland. 


Chimborazo. 


The  coast  ranges  of  Brazil  turn  many 
river  branches  inland.  These  streams 
reach  the  sea  by  flowing  round  the  ends  of  the 
ranges.  Thus  the  San 1 Francisco  river  winds 
northward  through  a wide  valley  a thousand 
miles  long,  before  it  finds  an  opening  to  the 
sea.  Other  streams  are  turned  inland  by  the 
coast  range  farther  south,  and  they  reach  the  sea  through  the 
broad  mouth  of  the  La  Flata  river. 

Long  rivers  flow  northward  and  southward  from  about 
the  middle  of  the  highland  of  Brazil.  This  part  of  the 
highland  is  a plateau,  not  yet  deeply  cut  by  streams. 
Partlier  north  and  south,  deep  and  wide  valleys  have  been 
worn  in  the  plateau,  leaving  long  ridges  between  them. 
Rapids  and  falls  abound  in  most  of  the  streams  and  make 
them  unfit  for  water  ways. 

The  coast  of  this  highland  region  is  not  broken  by 
long  bays.  The  best  harbor  is  that  of  Rio  Janeiro.  It 
is  deep  and  broad,  and  ranks  among  the  finest  in  the 
world.  Rocky  reefs  lielp  to  form  harbors  in  some  places 
along  the  coast  of  Brazil.  See  picture  beloiv. 

A large  part  of  the  highland  of  Brazil  is  reached 


The  northern  Andes  are  in  the  belt  of  equatorial  rains. 
The  eastern  slope,  which  receives  the  rains  of  the  trade 
winds,  contains  the  sources  of  many  large  rivers.  From  the 

1 Near  the  strait  of  Magellan  the  snow  line  is  only  half  a mile  above 
sea  level.  Towards  the  north  the  snow  cap  shrinks  farther  away  from 
the  lower  level,  till  near  the  equator  it  is  three  miles  high.  The  parts 
of  the  ranges  above  the  snow  line  are  dreary  wastes  of  snow  and  ice. 


Harbor  of  Pemambuco. 

by  the  equatorial  rain  belt.  The  hot  months  therefore 
form  the  wet  season.  In  the  dry  season,  there  are  heavy 
night  dews,  with  occasional  rains  from  the  trade  winds 
as  they  rise  over  the  highland. 

1 The  English  fonn  of  the  Portuguese  word  Sao  is  San. 


THE  GUI  AH  A HIGLAND.  — THE  SELVAS. 


59 


Towards  the  coast,  dense  forests  cover  large  areas  in 
tliis  highland.  In  the  inland  region,  where  the  rainfall 
is  lighter  than  it  is  near  the  coast,  there  are  wide  grassy 
plains  known  as  the  campos.  Ilerds  of  cattle  graze  on 
the  campos. 

Many  useful  plants  are  raised  on  the  highland,  — 
chiefly  in  the  rainy  eastern  part.  Among  these  are 
coffee,  sugar  cane,  cotton  and  cassava. 

9 Coffee  is  the  leading  product  in  this  region.  The  coffee  trees 
or  shrubs  thrive  in  lands  having  warm  weather  all  the  year, 
with  plenty  of  rain.  In  Brazil  they  grow  best  on  the  plateau 
and  the  slopes  of  low 
ranges,  at  quite  a dis- 
tance  from  the  sea. 

Each  coffee  berry  has 
two  seeds.  These  are 
baked  and  ground,  before 
being  used. 

Rio  Janeiro  is  the 
greatest  coffee  market  in 
the  world. 

There  are  two  species 
of  cassava  plant,  — the  bitter  and  the 
sweet.  From  the  roots  of  these  plants 
many  kinds  of  food  are  made  by  the 
white  people,  the  Negroes  and  the  In- 
dians  of  Brazil. 

Roots  of  bitter  cassava  contain 
deadly  poison,  but  this  is  driven  out  by 
grating,  pressing  and  baking.  Tapioca 
is  made  from  this  root.  Cassava  is  one 
of  the  chief  articles  of  food  used  by  poor 
people  in  Brazil. 


61.  The  Guiana  Highland. 

On  the  north  the  great  plain  of 
South  America  is  broken  by  the  Guiana  highland. 

This  highland  is  for  the  most  part  a much-worn 
plateau,  with  flat-topped  hills  and  mountains  rising  in 
high  cliffs  from  wide  valleys.  One  of  these  table  moun- 
tains, near  the  central  part  of  the  highland,  rises  about  a 
mile  and  a half  above  sea  level,  but  most  of  the  peaks 
are  not  half  so  high. 

This  highland  is  reached  by  the  equatorial  rains  and 
therefore  has  its  wettest  season  during  the  hot  months.  In 
all  seasons,  the  highest  portions  are  well  watered,  for  the 
trade  winds  give  out  rain  as  they  rise  over  the  highland. 

On  the  north  of  the  Guiana  highland  lies  a wooded  Coastal  plain. 
Large  swamps  that  extend  along  the  shore  are  the  home  of  many 
alligators.  The  slope  passes  so  gently  under  the  sea  that  at  low 
tide  wide  tracts  of  sand  and  mud  are  laid  bare. 

Much  of  the  south  slope  of  the  highland  consists  of 
rough  hills  and  bare  rocky  valleys,  for  the  winds  from 
the  sea  give  their  rains  mostly  to  the  northern  slopes. 

Find  on  the  map  the  Essequibo  river.  This  stream  flows 
from  the  plateau  through  a dense  forest  and  is  noted  for  its  grand 


cataract.  The  river  has  cut  a long  gorge  about  an  eighth  of  a 
'mile  deep,  into  the  head  of  which  the  water  now  plunges. 

62.  The  Selvas. 

The  slopes  east  of  the  crest  of  the  Andes  are  mainly 
in  three  great  river  basins.  The  divides  between  these 
basins  cross  the  highlands  of  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  the 
lowlands  farther  inland. 

The  Amazon  basin  is  between  the  other  two.  The 
highest  parts  of  its  long  slope  are  in  the  Andes.  The 
lowest  parts  are  Coastal  swamps,  more  than  two  thousand 
miles  east  of  the  snowy  peaks.  The  side  slopes 
descend  from  the  highland  of  Brazil  on  the 
south,  and  that  of  Guiana  on  the  north. 

The  Amazon  basin  is  the  largest  in  the  world. 
It  comprises  about  one  third  of  the  continent. 
This  basin  is  in  the  equatorial  rain  belt  and 
its  rainfall  is  very  heavy.  The 
Amazon  river  carries  more  water  to 
the  ocean  than  any  other  river  in 
the  world.  Its  muddy 
water  is  seen  at  sea  for  a 
great  distance  from  land. 
Some  branches  of  the 
Amazon  rise  in  the 
Andes,  and  the  water 
which  follows  the 
winding  banks  down 
from  these  sources  to 
the  mouth  flows  about 
four  thousand  miles. 

The  nearest  approach  of  the 
Amazon  basin  to  the  Pacific  ocean  is 
the  source  of  the  Paute  river,  in 
Ecuador,  only  about  thirty  miles  east  of  the  gulf  of  Guayaquil. 
No  other  river  in  South  America,  flowing  to  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
rises  so  near  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  main  branches  of  the  Amazon  are  the  Madeira 
river  on  the  south  and  the  Negro  river  on  the  north. 

Large  steamers  go  up  the  Amazon  from  the  sea  to 
the  foothills  of  the  Andes.  For  great  distances  many  of 
the  tributaries  are  deep,  wide,  and  free  from  rapids. 
The  length  of  navigable  streams  in  the  Amazon  system 
is  greater  than  the  distance  round  the  earth. 

Part  of  the  wide  mouth  of  the  Amazon  has  so  strong  a tidal 
wave,  or  bore,  that  boats  cannot  outride  it.  No  towns  are  situated 
on  the  shore  swept  by  this  tidal  wave. 

This  is  one  of  the  great  rivers  which  make  flood  plains.  For 
this  reason  the  lowlands  are  nearly  level,  — sloping  only  a few 
inches  to  the  mile.  The  streams  there  are  sluggish  and  the  silt 
which  they  carry  is  very  fine.  In  the  rainy  season  the  rivers  in 
the  lowland  generally  rise  thirty  or  forty  feet  and  spread  far  and 
wide  over  the  flood  plain. 

Dense  forests,  called  selvas,  cover  the  lowlands  of  the 
Amazon  basin.  Long  vines  hang  from  the  trees,  and 


60 


THE  GRAN  CHACO  AND  THE  PAMPAS. 


reeds  and  rushes  grow  in  the  wet  soil,  forming  a network 
so  tliick  in  some  places  that  one  cannot  pass  through 
without  first  cutting  a path. 

Tree  ferns  and  palms  in  great  variety  grow  in  the  selvas. 
Many  beautiful  birds  live  among  the  high  tree  tops. 

Lesson  113  describes  some  of  the  large  animals  of  the  selvas  and 
of  other  parts  of  South  America.  Perhaps  you  would  like  to  read 
that  lesson,  but  you  need  not  study  it  at  present. 

Many  small  tribes  of  Indians  live  near  the  banks  of 
the  streams.  These  natives  catch  fish  in  the  rivers, 
and  animals  in  the  forest. 

Large  rubber  trees  grow  on  the  hot  and  damp  banks  of  the 
Amazon.  Deep  cuts  are  made  in  the  bark,  and  cups  are  placed 


beneath  them  to  catch  the  milky  juice  which  oozes  out.  When 
heated  in  certain  kinds  of  smoke,  this  juice  dries,  thickens,  and 
forms  rubber  of  a fine  quality. 

Another  kind  of  rubber  tree  grows  on  the  plateau  of  Brazil. 
The  outer  layer  of  bark  is  stripped  off  to  the  height  of  about 
five  feet  from  the  ground.  The  sap  then  runs  out  and  hardens  on 
the  tree.  After  a few  days  this  rubber  sap  is  ready  for  market. 

India  rubber  is  made  from  the  sap  of  many  kinds  of  trees 
and  shrubs  that  grow  in  nearly  all  hot  and  damp  parts  of  the 
earth.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  rubber. 

Iiosewood  trees  also  grow  in  the  selvas.  The  color  of  the  wood 
is  deep  red-brown,  with  streaks  of  dark  resin. 

Piano  cases,  chairs  and  tables  are  often  carved  in  rosewood, 
because  it  takes  such  a fine  polish.  Wood  that  is  used  in  making 
choice  furniture  is  called  cabinet  wood.  Many  kinds  of  trees  in 
Brazil  supply  cabinet  wood. 

Several  species  of  trees  that  abound  in  the  selvas  yield  dyes. 
Among  these  are  logwood  trees.  Thin  chips  are  cut  from  the 
trees  and  are  kept  moist.  Green  crystals  form  on  the  chips,  and 
these  crystals  are  used  in  dying  cloth. 

Dyes  of  various  kinds  are  made  from  logwood.  Some  of  these 
are  used  to  give  the  color  in  blue  woolen  cloth,  purple  calico,  and 
black  prints. 

Para,  being  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  has  a very  large 
trade  in  rubber  and  other  products  of  the  selvas. 


63.  The  Gran  Chaco  and  the  Pampas. 

South  of  the  Amazon  basin  lies  the  La  Plata  basin. 
It  reaches  from  the  crest  of  the  Andes  on  the  west  to  the 
crest  of  the  coast  range  on  the  east. 

This  basin  is  about  one  half  as  large  as  that  of  the 
Amazon.  The  main  stream  is  the  Parana  river  which 
fiows  into  the  broad  La  Plata  river. 

The  lowland  of  the  La  Plata  basin  is  a young  plain  in 
which  the  rivers  have  cut  only  narrow  and  shallow 
valleys.  The  northern  part  of  this  plain  is  called  the 
gran  chaco,  or  great  hunting  ground.  South  of  the  chaco 
the  plain  takes  the  name  of  pampas,  meaning  fields.  The 
pampas  extend  also  far  south  of  the  La  Plata  basin. 

We  have  read  about  the 
winter  rams  on  the  plain  of 
Chile.  At  that  time  the  val- 
ley  of  the  La  Plata  has  its 
dry  season.  In  summer,  when 
the  belt  of  westerly  winds 
moves  southward,  moist 
northeast  winds  from  over 
the  Atlantic  bring  the  wet 
season  to  the  chaco  and  the 
pampas.  The  interior  parts 
of  these  regions  are  so  far 
from  the  sea  that  their  rains 
are  not  heavy. 

Deep  rich  soil  co  vers  large 
portions  of  the  La  Plata  plain, 
and  its  grass  feeds  millions  of  cattle, 
sheep  and  horses.  Much  grain  also  is 
raised  in  this  region.  In  some  places 
there  are  clumps  of  tall  coarse  grass  covered  with  soft 
plumes.  This  is  known  as  pampas  grass. 

The  grassy  plains  merge  into  forest  land  on  the  north, 
into  long  plains  of  gravel  on  the  south,  and  into  salty 
plains  and  brackish  marshes  on  the  west.  These  marshes 
lie  between  low  ranges  rising  from  the  plain. 

The  streams  of  the  chaco  run  into  the  Parana  river. 
Many  of  the  rivers  which  flow  from  the  western  high- 
land  towards  the  pampas  dwindle  away  in  the  plain 
and  do  not  reach  the  sea,  because  the  rainfall  is  light  and 
the  water  evaporates  or  sinks  into  the  sandy  soil. 

The  great  gravel  plains  south  of  the  pampas  extend  to  the  strait 
of  Magellan  and  are  known  as  the  plains  of  Patagonia.  These 
plains  are  not  a single  level  stretch,  but  they  consist  of  wide  ter- 
races,  some  of  which  are  fully  two  hundred  feet  above  the  next 
lower  on  the  east.  These  step-like  plains  rise  from  the  coast 
towards  the  mountains. 

The  plains  of  Patagonia  are  in  the  belt  of  westerly  winds,  but 
receive  only  moderate  rainfall,  because  the  western  slope  of  the 
lofty  range  takes  most  of  the  moisture. 

This  region  is  crossed  by  several  shallow  rivers,  flowing  from 
the  Andes.  The  flood  plains  of  the  larger  rivers  are  fertile,  but 
many  of  the  streams  dwindle  away  for  want  of  rain. 


THE  LLANOS. 


61 


The  white  people  who  live  in  the  La  Plata  basin 
have  great  farms  but  few  factories.  These  people 
send  cattle  and  grain  to  Buenos  Ayres,  the  chief  port 
of  the  Argentine  Republic.  This  city  supplies  the 

r\AA-»-vlA  unt  li  nlnt  ninn*  T‘iy»m  tnnlc 


wide  over  their  flood  plains.  Immense  herds  of  cattle  and 
droves  of  sheep  feed  on  the  rich  grass  which  springs  up 
all  over  the  wet  plains.  The  region  then  teems  with  life. 
As  the  sun’s  rays  become  more  and  more  slanting  the 


Pampas 


Plumes. 


At  Buenos  Ayres,  the  wide  mouth  of  the  La 
Plata  river  was  so  shallow  that  vessels  could 
not  anchor  within  six  or  eight  miles  of  the 
shore,  until  an  artificial  port  was  made  by 
dredging  out  the  bottom.  The  coast  is  low 
and  flat,  and  the  houses  are  seen  from  offshore 
before  the  land  itself  appears. 

The  city  of  Montevideo,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  La  Plata 
mouth  east  of  Buenos  Ayres,  has  a good  natural  harbor  and  has 
therefore  grown  to  be  the  chief  port  of  the  country  of  Uruguay. 


rains  leave  the  llanos 
and  move  south  towards 
the  campos.  The  over- 
flow  in  the  lowland  is 
slowly  drained  off.  The 
rivers  then  grow  smaller 
and  shrink  away  from 
their  banks.  Turtles  and 
snakes  bury  themselves 
in  the  mud.  The  smaller 
streams  dry  away,  leaving  only 
parched  beds  with  here  and  there 
muddy  pools.  During  the  dry  season  a great  change 
takes  place  in  the  life  on  the  plains.  Hot  trade  winds 
scorch  the  grass  and  otlier  plants.  They  die  down  to  the 
roots  and  thus  await  the  return  of  the  rains.  The  cattle 
and  the  sheep  move  into  the  flood  plains  or  are  driven  to 


64.  The  Llanos. 


The  third  large  river  basin  in  South  America  is  that 

of  the  Orinoco.  On 
the  south  it  adjoins 
the  basin  of  the  Ama- 
zon.  On  the  west  and 
north  the  Andes  form  the 
boundary. 

The  lowland  of  this  basin  is 
a very  young  Coastal  plain.  Its 
rivers  flow  in  narrow  valleys 
worn  only  a little  below  the 
level  of  the  plain.  The  main 
river  has  made  a large  delta 
that  is  low  and  swampy. 
The  plains  of  the 
Orinoco  are  called  the 
llanos.  When  the  sun 

Tree  Dwellers  ol  the  Orinoco.  Jg  north  0f  the  eqUSt- 

tor,  they  are  visited  by  the  equatorial  rain  belt.  The 
rivers  are  then  swollen  by  heavy  rains,  and  spread  far  and 


A Square  in  Montevideo. 

the  grass  lands  among  the  border  foothills.  The  plain 
becomes  almost  a desert. 

In  some  places  it  is  difftcult  to  trace  the  divides  between  the 
three  great  river  basins  of  South  America.  The  Orinoco  river  and 
Rio  Negro  tributary  of  the  Amazon  are  connected  by  the  Cassiquiari 
river.  Tributaries  of  the  Amazon  and  Paraguay  rivers,  navigable 
by  canoes,  are  separated  by  only  three  miles  of  plain. 

With  the  exception  of  a few  rapids  and  the  portage  oi  three 
miles,  a person  might  journey  in  a canoe  from  the  delta  of  the 
Orinoco  to  the  broad  mouth  of  the  La  Plata. 


ASIA.  — MAP  STUDIES. 


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64 


THE  ALT  AI  HIGHLAND. 


are  flowing  towards  warmer  surfaces  and  can  therefore  hold  more 
moisture  than  they  bring.  The  heaviest  rains  are  given  to  the 
south  and  southeast  slopes  of  Asia,  by  the  winds  from  over  the 
Indian  and  Pacific  oceans,  because  these  damp  winds  are  moving 
into  cooler  beits  and  up  the  high  border  ranges. 

When  the  sun  is  south  of  the  equator,  the  great  central  high- 
land  with  its  desert  region  becomes  very  cold.  The  cold  air  heing 
heavy  then  flows  seaward  and  yields  hardly  any  rain. 


The  Altai  highland  and  a large  part  of  the  great  plain 
on  the  north  are  forested  with  cone-bearing  trees.  In  the 
broad  valleys  among  the  ranges,  grain  thrives  and  cattle 
tind  good  grass  land.  Most  of  the  towns  in  this  region 
are  built  near  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
streams  can  be  used  to  irrigate  the  land. 


67.  The  Altai  Highland. 

From  the  rocky  shore  of  Bering  strait  the  world  ridge 
turns  to  the  Southwest  in  Asia.  For  a long  distance  low 
ranges  of  mountains  .... 

follow  the  Pa-  '■ 


A Tibetan  and  bis  Yak  (Hixnalayas). 

What  range  is  near  the  northwest  shore  of  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  ? 
Where  is  the  Yablonoi  range  ? 

The  Y ablonoi  range  runs  into  the  Altai  highland  whicli 
extends  inland  towards  the  middle  of  the  continent.  The 
Altai  plateau  is  about  as  high  as  the  Great  Basin  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Altai  highland  is  in  the  belt  of  the  westerly  winds, 
but  their  direction  changes  greatly  with  the  seasons, 
because  the  air  over  this  great  continent  is  by  turns  very 
warm  and  very  cold.  The  rainfall  of  this  far-inland  region 
is  light.  Most  of  the  rain  falls  on  the  mountain  ranges. 

In  what  direction  do  most  of  the  streams  from  this  highland 
flow  ? What  heat  belt  crosses  it  ? What  part  of  North  America 
is  in  the  same  belt  ? 


vjo.  v^euLiai  jDasin  rtegion. 

The  dry  Basin  region  of  central  Asia  is  south  and 
southeast  of  the  Altai  highland.  The  eastern  part  of  this 
almost  rainless  basin  is  called  the  desert  of  Gobi.  The 
western  part  is  the  Middle  Basin. 

What  mountain  range  lies  along  the  eastern  border  of  the  desert 
of  Gobi  ? What  high  ranges  inclose  the  Middle  Basin  on  the 
north  and  the  south? 

The  desert  of  Gobi  is  about  as  high  as  the  Great 
Basin  in  our  country,  — 4000  feet.  The 
Middle  Basin  is  not  quite  so  high. 

The  Basin  regions  of  Asia  and  North 
America  are  alike  in  many  respects.  They 
are  at  about  the  same  distance  from  the 
equator,  — nearly  halfway  to  the  north  pole. 
Their  surfaces  are  broken  by  low  ranges, 
between  which  lie  long  troughs.  None  of 
their  streams  reach  the  sea,  but  all  waste 
away  or  flow  into  salt  lakes  or  marshes. 

In  both  basins,  the  sides  of  the  trough-like 
valleys  are  covered  with  coarse  waste  from 
the  ranges,  while  the  middle  parts  of  the  val- 
leys receive  the  finer  waste  carried  by  the  few 
streams.  Strong  winds  that  sweep  over  por- 
tions  of  the  surface,  lay  bare  the  rocky  ledges, 
and  drift  the  sand  into  dunes.  Most  of  the 
towns  are  built  near  the  mountains  where 
the  streams  flow  out  into  the  open  valleys. 
These  streams  are  fed  mostly  by  rain  or  by 
snow  melting  on  the  high  border  ranges. 

Less  than  half  the  region  marked  Gobi  on  the 
maps  is  really  a barren  waste.  The  desert  runs 
east-and-west  through  the  central  portion,  and  even 
that  is  not  so  barren  as  the  Middle  Basin  farther  west. 

In  eastern  Gobi,  summer  rains  sometimes  last  for  two  or  tliree 
days.  Grass  then  springs  up  and  provides  food  for  the  camels  and 
horses  in  the  caravans  which  carry  tea  from  China  to  Siberia, 
whence  it  is  taken  to  Russia.  Over  a large  part  of  the  so-called 
desert  of  Gobi,  camels  and  sheep  eke  out  a living  on  grass  and  bushes. 

When  it  is  noon  in  the  Middle  Basin,  it  is  midnight  in  the  Great 
Basin  of  North  America.  Can  you  tell  why? 

The  western  part  of  the  Basin  region  of  Asia  is  drier  than  the 
Great  Basin  of  North  America,  for  the  former  is  much  farther  from 
the  sea  and  is  also  inclosed  by  higher  ranges  on  the  windward  sides. 

The  people  in  the  western  part  of  the  Basin  region  of  Asia  lead  a 
wretched  life.  Streams  flowing  at  one  time  may  be  dry  at  another, 
and  river  valleys  may  thus  become  barren.  The  people  are  then 
forced  to  roam  about  in  search  of  pastures  for  their  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  old  towns  are  sometimes  buried  by  drifting  sand. 


THE  HIGHLAND  OF  TIBET. 


65 


69.  The  Highland  of  Tibet. 

South  of  the  Basin  region  rises  the  great  highland  of 
Tibet.  Large  portions  of  its  plateau 1 surface  are  nearly 
half  a inile  higher  than  Lake  Titicaca,  and  some  of  its 
peaks  are  twice  as  high  above  sea  level  as  the  plateau 
over  which  they  rise.  The  highlands  of  Tibet  and 
Bolivia  are  on  almost  opposite  sides  of  the  earth. 

The  rainfall  of  the  inner  part  of  the  highland  of  Tibet 
is  very  light,  owing  to  high  ranges  on  its  Southern 
or  windward  border.  Many  of  the  valleys  of 
Tibet  are  like  those  in  the  Great  Basin  of  North 
America,  but  the  former  are  much  the  higher. 

Tliey  are  covered  with  waste  from  the  inclosing 
ranges.  Streams  from  the  mountains  run  into 
the  valleys,  but  there  is  not  enougli  water  to  over- 
flow  and  reach  the  sea.  The  lakes  and  marshes 
in  these  inclosed  valleys  are  therefore  salt. 

Several  of  the  lakes  in  the  western  part  of  the 
highland  of  Tibet  are  the  highest  in  the  world, 
being  about  17,000  feet  above  sea  level. 

In  some  places,  where  the  salt  lakes  or  marshes 
dry  away,  the  surface  is  covered  with  layers  of 
white  salt.  Birds-of-passage  often  mistake  these 
salty  plains  for  bodies  of  water  and  descend 
to  them. 

The  inner  part  of  Tibet  is 
almost  a desert.  Owing  to  its 


great  lieight  it  is  very  cold, 
except  during  the  days  of  a 
short  summer  season.  The 
soil  is  poor  and  there  are  long 
periods  of  drouth.  Large  herds 
of  wild  yaks  and  musk  deer 
search  out  grassy  places  near 
the  streams  and  on  the  moun- 
tain  sides.  Few  people  live 
in  the  inner  part  of  Tibet. 

Three  huge  mountain  ranges  rise  above  the 
plateau  of  Tibet.  These  are  the  Kuen-Lun  on  the 
north,  the  Karakoram  on  the  northwest,  and  the 
Himalaya  on  the  south. 

The  word  Himalaya  means  the  abode  of  snow.  Even  in  summer 
the  snow  line  is  about  two  miles  below  the  highest  summits. 

Mt.  Everest  is  thought  to  be  the  highest  peak  on  the  earth.  It 
rises  more  than  five  miles  and  a half  above  sea  level. 

The  Himalayas  are  so  lofty  that  they  form  a barrier  to  about  one 
half  of  the  air  and  three  fourths  of  the  moisture  moving  towards 
them.  There  is  very  little  moisture  in  the  air  above  the  peak  of 
Mt.  Everest. 

The  effect  of  such  a barrier  is  very  marked.  Few  of  the  kinds 
of  plants  which  thrive  south  of  the  Himalayas  are  found  north  of 
the  great  chain.  There  is  but  little  food  to  be  found  on  the  lofty 
slopes,  and  not  many  wild  animals  therefore  can  travel  from  one 
side  of  the  chain  to  the  other. 


The  Himalaya  mountains  separate  two  races  of  men,  — the 
yellow  people  on  the  north  and  the  white  people  on  the  gouth. 
Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  Crossing  the  range,  these  races  have  neither 
traded  nor  warred  to  any  great  extent  with  each  other. 

Just  north  of  the  Himalaya  chain,  the  valleys  in  the 
plateau  of  Tibet  are  deep,  because  for  a long  time  their 

rivers  have  had  outlets  to  the  sea 

and  have  carried  away  a great 

quantity  waste  from  the 

valleys.  These  val- 
' leys  are  drained  by 
two  large  rivers, 
the  Indus  and  the 
Brahmaputra,  — 
the  one  flowing 


westward  and  the  other  eastward 
behind  the  range,  and  then  escaping  by  deep  gorges  that 
they  have  cut  through  the  mountains. 

The  upper  parts  of  the  Indus  and  Brahmaputra  rivers 
are  fed  chiefly  by  snow  melting  on  the  lofty  mountains. 
Along  the  sides  of  these  streams  are  found  most  of  the 
people  who  live  in  the  highland  of  Tibet.  They  have 
small  gardens  and  herds  of  yaks.  To  the  natives  of 
Tibet,  the  yaks  are  as  useful  as  cattle  are  to  us.2 

Compared  with  the  Appalachian  mountains,  the  Himalayas  are 
very  young.  Their  slopes  are  steep  and  the  waste  is  quickly 
washed  away.  Sometimes  great  landslides  take  place,  — often 
blocking  river  valleys  and  thus  forming  lakes. v When  these 
suddenly  break  through  the  barriers,  the  water  sweeps  in  a flood 


1 The  average  height  of  the  plateau  of  Tibet  is  14,000  or  15,000  feet. 


2 Lesson  114  tells  some  of  the  uses  of  yaks. 


GG 


HIGHLANDS  OF  SOUTHWEST  ASIA. 


down  the  valleys,  doing  mucli  damage  to  villages  and  farms. 
During  the  rainy  sunnner  seasons,  mud  avalanches  pour  down 
the  slopes  of  many  of  these  mountains.  The  rock  waste  has  filled 
some  valleys  to  the  deptli  of  from  500  to  1000  feet. 


70.  Highlands  of  Southwest  Asia. 

The  Southwest  portion  of  Asia  is  mostly  a plateau  region 
forming  part  of  the  great  Asian  highland. 


The  Southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas 
monsoons  from  over  the  Indian  ocean  and 
have  very  heavy  rainfall  when  the  South- 
west trade  winds  of  summer  blow. 

The  Himalaya  mountains  are  in  several  paral- 
lel  ranges.  The  outer  or  Southern  ranges  are  the 
youngest.  Owing  to  the  heavy  rainfall,  many 
branches  of  the  Ganges  and  Indus  rivers  are  so 
strong  that  they  have  held  tlieir  places  and  cut 
their  valleys  through  the  younger  outer  ranges 
which  have  been  raised  across  their  courses. 

The  work  of  these  rivers  shows  how  slowly 
the  Himalaya  mountains  have  been  formed. 

While  the  ranges  were  being  forced  upward,  the 
rivers  were  cutting  their  channels,  and  the  moun- 
tains could  not  have  been  raised  faster  than  the 
streams  wore  down  the  solid  rock  ; for  the  depth 
of  the  gorges  shows  that  the  streams  have  held 
their  places  for  ages.  Many  of  these  gorges  are  so  narrow  and 
steep-sided  that  they  cannot  be  followed.  The  inner  valleys  of  the 
highland  are  generally  reached  over  lofty  passes  in  the  ranges. 

On  the  east,  the  highland  of  Tibet  sends  long  streams 
down  the  slopes  of  China.  Several  large  rivers  from 
the  highland  bend  also  to  the  southeast.  These  rivers 
flow  in  long  valleys  between  lofty  ranges  which  extend 
into  the  peninsulas  of  south- 
east Asia.  The  mountains 
are  heavily  forested. 

One  of  the  pictures  on  page  65 
shows  part  of  the  vale  of  Kash- 
mir, situated  among  the  Hima- 
layas  not  far  from  the  place 
where  the  Indus  river  cuts  across 
the  chain.  The  le  vel  land  of  this  vale 
was  once  the  bed  of  a lake.  The  river 
which  now  meanders  across  the  lake 
plain  is  a branch  of  the  Indus.  The 
part  shown  in  the  picture  is  about  a 
mile  above  sea  level,  and  the  water 
must  flow  a thousand  miles  or  more 
before  it  reaches  the  sea. 

At  the  western  end  of  the  high- 
land of  Tibet  stand  the  Pamir 
plateaus.  We  may  think  of  this 
region  as  the  mountain  center  of 
Asia.  Almost  all  the  loftiest 
ranges  of  the  continent  radiate  from  the  Pamirs. 

Eastward  stretch  the  three  huge  ranges  of  Tibet.  To- 
wards  the  northeast  run  the  Thian-Shan  mountains  along 
the  border  of  the  Middle  Basin.  The  Suliman  range 
extends  southward  to  the  coast  and  cuts  off  India  from 
Southwest  Asia.  The  high  Hindu-Kush  chain  stretches 
westward  along  the  northern  border  of  the  plateau  of  Iran. 


plateau  of  Iran  ? What  mountains  are  on  the 
northeast  ? What  range  is  on  the  east  ? 

The  plateau  of  Iran  is  about  one  third 
as  high  as  the  plateau  of  Tibet.  The 
former  is  almost  inclosed  by  mountains 
and  is  too  far  west  to  receive  the  rainy 
summer  monsoon  which  blows  from  the 
Southwest  towards  the  Himalayas. 

The  plateau  of  Iran  resembles  the  Great 
Basin  of  North  America.  Both  have  small 
streams,  salt  lakes  and  salt  swamps.  In 
both,  the  valley  troughs  are  covered  with 
waste  from  the  ranges ; in  places,  sand 
drifts  into  dunes ; the  people  settle  chiefly 
near  the  ranges,  where  the  mountain 
streams  can  easily  be  used  to  irrigate  the 
land ; canals  and  ditches  lead  the  water  over  the  cultivated 
districts.  As  a whole,  both  regions  are  dry  and  un- 
productive. 

In  the  Suliman  range  are  two  important  passes  over  which 
caravans  have  gone  for  centuries.  The  Khyber  pass  is  one  of  the 
chief  gateways  between  the  high  region  of  Iran  and  the  low  fertile 
plains  south  of  the  Himalaya  mountains.  This  pass  is  only  about 
half  a mile  above  sea  level. 

Another  low  place  in  the  crest  of  the  Suliman  range  is  the 
famous  Bolan  pass,  Southwest  of  the  Khyber.  This  pass  has  been 
the  scene  of  many  fierce  conflicts  between  caravan  guards  and  the 
natives  of  the  mountain  region.  In  recent  years  the  native  tribes 
have  been  subdued. 

Persia  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  the  plateau  of  Iran  and 
extends  from  the  Caspian  sea  to 
the  Arabian  sea. 

On  the  plateau  of  Iran  is  a region 
known  as  the  Persian  salt  desert. 
This  covers  a large  area  and  con- 
sists  of  solid  salt  several  feet  thick 
in  most  places.  In  some  parts  it 
is  of  unknown  depth.  Centuries 
must  have  passed  while  the  water  which 
has  now  evaporated  was  depositing  this 
great  bed  of  salt. 

What  gulf  is  on  the  Southwest  of  Persia? 
What  country  is  west  of  Persia  ? See  colored 
map  of  Asia. 

Southwest  of  the  plateau  of  Iran  lies  a small  river 
valley  sloping  to  the  Persian  gulf.  The  greater  part  of 
this  valley  consists  of  the  flood  plains  of  two  rivers,  — the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  Canals  have  been  made  to 
lead  water  over  the  plains,  and  some  parts  of  them  are 
very  productive.  Wheat  is  the  leading  crop.  Figs  and 
dates  also  thrive  here. 


face  the  moist  Where  is  the 


Khyber  Pass. 


THE  ARCTIC  AND  CASPIAN  SLOPES. 


G7 


For  many  centuries  this  valley  has  been  peopled  by  the  white 
race.  Under  strong  rulers,  the  people  thrived  and  made  fine 
systems  of  canals  to  irrigate  the  land.  Then  the  crops  were  large, 
great  cities  were  built,  and  the  nation  became  prosperous. 

For  a long  time  the  rulers  have  been  weak.  The  land  has  been 
overrun  by  thieving  tribes  that  have  not  only  robbed  the 
tillers  of  the  soil.  but  have  also  destroyed  many  of 
their  canals.  Fearing  these  robbers  and  also 
having  heavy  taxes  to  pay  to  their  cruel  rulers, 
the  people  have  allowed  the  remaining  canals 
to  go  to  ruin.  Many  parts  of  the  valley  that 
were  once  fertile  have  become  sandy  and 
barren. 

The  Persian  gulf  is  the  shallowest  of  five 
arms  of  the  sea  that  almost  surround  the 
portion  of  Asia  extending  westward  from  the 
plateau  of  Iran.  Name  the  other  four  seas. 

A low  plateau  spreads  out  towards 
these  seas.  Its  average  height  is  about 
one  half  that  of  the  Great  Basin  in  our 
country.  A large  portion  of  the  region 
is  desert,  but  there  are  also  many  grassy 
slopes  and  fruit  groves.  The  land  is  poorly  tilled. 

Between  what  seas  does  the  Caucasus  mountaiu  range  extend  ? 

There  are  many  old  lake  basins  in  the  region  south  of 
the  Black  sea.  These  contain  small  lakes,  most  of  which 
have  no  outlets,  for  there  is  not  now  enough  rainfall  to 
supply  more  water  than  evaporates.  Several  small  rivers 
flow  down  the  north  slope  of  the  plateau.  Mt.  Ararat,  in 
this  plateau  region,  is  a famous  volcanic  cone  a little 
more  than  three  miles  and  a fourth  high. 

Many  small  but  fertile  slopes  descend  from  western 
Asia  to  the  Mediterranean  coast.  They  receive  light  rain- 
fall from  the  westerly 
winds.  Figs,  olives  and 
grapes  in  large  quantities 
are  raised  in  that  district. 

The  Dead  sea  is  in  one  of 
the  most  famous  valley s on  the 
earth.  The  water  of  this  sea  is 
about  ten  times  as  salt  as  that 
in  the  ocean  and  is  also  very 
bitter.  The  sea  is  not  quite  fifty 
miles  long.  Its  surface  is  about 
one  fourth  of  a mile  below  the 
level  of  the  ocean. 

Steep  slopes  descend  to  the  east  and  west  shores  of  this 
inland  sea,  but  a wide  marsh  spreads  round  its  Southern  end. 

The  wet  land  is  thickly  covered  with  bushes  and  coarse  grasses. 

At  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  sea  lie  wide  mud-plains  across  ' 
which  the  river  Jordan  flows  to  enter  the  sea. 

North  of  the  Dead  sea  is  a beautiful  lake  known  as  the  sea  of 
Galilee.  This  lake  also  is  below  sea  level,  but  its  water  is  fresh, 
because  the  river  Jordan  forms  its  outlet.  This  river  also  feeds  it. 

The  Jordan  and  the  two  lakes  are  in  one  long  valley.  It  is  shut 
in  by  high  land  on  both  sides.  One  low  range  near  the  Southwest 
shore  of  the  Dead  sea  contains  a deposit  of  rock  salt  about  six  miles 
in  length. 


The  slopes  of  the  Dead  sea  valley  are  mostly  barren.  Rain  sel- 
dom falls  in  this  region,  except  on  the  mountains.  All  summer  the 
hot  sunshine  pours  down  upon  bare  and  rocky  slopes. 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia  is  mostly  a desert  plateau.  In 
many  respects  it  resembles  the  Great  Basin  but 
is  much  drier.  Dates  and  wheat  are  raised 
in  some  of  the  narrow  valleys  near  moun- 
tain  ranges.  Camels  and  horses  also 
graze  there. 

Some  of  these  valleys  not  far  from  the 
sea  are  thickly  settled.  Until  recent  years 
the  chiefs  have  kept  travelers  out  of  this 
part  of  the  country.  Many  of  the  chiefs 
have  great  wealth  and  fine  buildings. 

The  hilly  slopes  near  the  Southern 
end  of  the  Red  sea  are  famous  for 
their  coffee  crops. 


71.  The  Arctic  and  Caspian  Slopes. 


Cedar  of  Lebanon. 


The  northern  part  of  Eurasia  consists 
mainly  of  a broad  low  Coastal  plain.  The  Ural  mountains 
run  north  and  south  across  the  plain  and  form  a portion 
of  the  boundary  between  Asia  and  Europe.  The  Arctic 
lowland  in  Asia  is  known  as  the  plain  of  Siberia.  Nearly 
all  of  this  plain  is  in  the  basins  of  three  large  river 
systems. 

Name  three  rivers  ilowing  across  the  plain  of  Siberia.  Where 
do  they  rise  ? Which  of  these  rivers,  through  one  of  its  branches, 
receives  the  overflow  of  Lake  Baikal  ? 

This  lake  is  about  one  fourth  of  a mile  above  sea  level  and  is 
almost  encircled  by  forested  mountain  slopes. 

Lake  Baikal  is  the  largest  body  of  fi^sh  water  in  Asia,  but  it  is 
not  quite  half  so  large  as  Lake  Superior.  The 
water  of  this  lake  is  very  deep,  and  it  abounds  in 
salmon.  In  summer  many-seals  are  caught  along 
its  shores.  It  is  curious  to  find  seals  in  this 
lake,  for  they  are  usually  seen  only  in  the  oceans. 
Russian  traders  navigate  the  lake  while  it  is 
open,  and  when  it  freezes  they  cross  it  on 
sledges.  It  is  a useful  highway  of  trade. 

A large  part  of  the  plain  of 
Siberia  lies  within  the 
Arctic  circle.  For  two 
montlis  or  more  in  winter, 
the  greater  portion  of  the 
Arctic  coast  of  this  plain 
is  in  darkn.ess.  The 
longest  period  of  summer 
daylight  lasts  for  an  equal 
length  of  time.  South  of 
the  Arctic  circle,  in  all  parts 
of  the  Siberian  lowland,  the  summer  days  are  long  and 
the  winter  days  are  short. 

Being  far  from  the.  equator  and  far  inland  from  the 
warmer  oceans,  the  plain  of  Siberia  has  long  and  very  cold 


68 


THE  ARCTIC  AND  CASPIAN  SLOPES. 


FCt OlNo  Stl<. 


winters.  The  summers  are  short.  They  are  cool  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  plain,  but  warm  in  the  Southern  part. 

The  map  of  the  heat  beits,  page  21,  shows  how  far  south  the  cold 
belt  extends  in  Siberia.  There,  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Lena  basin, 
is  the  coldest  winter  region  known  in  the  world.  The  ground  is 
frozen  to  the  depth  of  several  hundred  feet,  and  even  in  summer 
the  soil  thaws  for  only  a few  feet  below  the  surface.  The  extreme 
cold  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  region  is  far  inland  from  the  warmer 
oceans,  that  the  winter  nights  are  long,  and  that  warm  winds  from 
the  far  south  cannot  cross  the  great  central  highland. 

The  average  temperature  in  the  coldest  part  of  Siberia  is  only  a 
few  degrees  above  zero.  The  winter  average  is  more  than  50°  below 
zero ; and  90°  below  have  been  recorded.1 

Along  the  Arctic  coast  of  Siberia  are  mossy  marshy 
plains  callecl  tundras.  They  resemble  the  marshy  plains 

Heavy  floods, 
like  tliose 
in  the 


along  the  Arctic  coast  of  North  America. 


m --  — 

-p—  -~M 

South  of  the  tundras,  as  in  North  America,  lie  the  forest 
plains.  Most  of  the  trees  are  cone-bearers,  — larcli,  fir  and 
pine.  The  forest  belt  crosses  northern  Eurasia,  from  the 
Pacific  ocean  to  the  Atlantic.  In  Asia  the  forests  extend 
southward  to  the  border  of  the  desert  of  Gobi,  the  Middle 
Basin  and  the  dry  plains  around  the  Caspian  sea. 

In  the  Obi  basin,  east  of  the  Ural  mountains,  the  growth  of  trees 
is  very  dense.  There  the  forested  swamps  cover  many  thousand 
square  miles. 

Like  the  rest  of  the  forest  belt,  the  Obi  swamps  abound  in  fur- 
bearing  animals.  Among  these  are  squirrels,  sables,  bears  and 
reindeer.  Hunters  in  the  Obi  swamps  must  use  great  care,  for 
large  areas  consist  merely  of  thickly-woven  roots  and  grasses 
floating  on  water.  A false  step  may  cost  a life. 

The  forest  belt  is  broken  in  many  places  by  wide  open 
plains.  In  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Siberian  river  basins, 
the  plains  yield  harvests  of  wheat,  rye  and  oats.  Even 
in  places  where  only  about  three  feet  of  loose  soil  overlie 

deeply-frozen  subsoil  and 
rock,  some 
grain 


Mackenzie  valley, 
occur  in  the  tundras 
and  for  a long  dis- 
tance  south  of  them. 

What  causes  these 
floods  ? See  lesson  52. 

In  the  gravelly  river 
banks  of  the  Siberian  tundras,  fossil  elephants  are  found.  These 
liad  woolly  coverings  that  fitted  them  to  live  in  the  cold  plains. 
The  “ woolly  elephants  ” are  unlike  any  now  found  on  the  earth  ; 
yet  the  flesh  of  these  great  beasts,  after  being  buried  perhaps  for 
many  centuries  in  the  frozen  ground,  is  sometimes  found  well- 
preserved  and  is  eaten  by  dogs. 

The  tusks  of  these  fossil  woolly  elephants  have  for  a long  time 
supplied  part  of  the  ivory  so  finely  carved  in  China  and  Japan. 

In  summer  large  herds  of  reindeer  visit  the  tundras  to 
feed  on  reindeer  moss.  As  the  cold  season  advances,  the 
deer  go  southward  to  places  where  they  can  find  food  and 
day light.  White  bears  and  seals  are  seen  along  the 
Arctic  shore,  but  both  the  plant  and  the  animal  life  are 
scanty.  The  region  is  dreary  and  desolate,  except  for  a 
few  weeks  in  summer. 


1 At  the  trading  station  of  Verkoyansk,  350  feet  above  sea  level. 
map  of  Asia  in  the  Supplement. 


See 


is  raised,  but  early  frosts 
of  ten  destroy  the  crops. 

A railroad  is  being  built  from  west  to  east  across  the  plain  of 
Siberia,  but  at  present  the  great  rivers  form  the  main  highways  of 
trade  and  travel.  Turn  to  the  relief  map  on  page  62,  and  you  will 
see  that  the  Obi,  Yenisei  and  Lena  rivers  branch  towards  one 
another  in  such  a manner  that,  except  in  two  narrow  places,  there 
is  a water  way  from  the  Ural  mountains  to  the  Stanovoi  range. 

In  summer  many  steamers  navigate  the  rivers,  and  in  winter  the 
smoothly-frozen  surfaces  of  the  streams  make  excellent  roads.  The 
winter  travel  is  mainly  on  sledges  drawn  by  deer. 

The  natives  of  the  Siberian  plain  belong  to  the  yellow  race. 
Many  white  people  from  the  great  plain  in  Europe  have  settled  in 
Siberia,  and  these  now  greatly  outnumber  the  natives. 

Along  the  Southern  border  of  the  forest  belt,  the  open 
plains,  or  steppes,  are  covered  with  fine  fertile  soil.  Large 
crops  of  grain  are  raised,  and  many  cattle,  sheep  and 
horses  graze  on  the  plains. 

The  Southwest  part  of  the  northern  plain  of  Asia  is 
drained  towards  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas.  As  the  region 
is  low  and  far  inland,  it  has  only  light  rainfall  and  is  there- 
fore  almost  treeless.  The  rain  comes  in  summer  wlien  the 
sea-winds  blow  over  the  heated  plains.  In  winter  the 
heavy  air  tends  to  flow  outward  from  this 'region. 


THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 


The  grass  in  any  one  part  of  this  region  is  not  plentiful  enough 
to  support  the  cattle  and  sheep.  The  people  therefore  wander  with 
their  herds  from  plaee  to  place,  living  in  tents  and  carrying  all  their 
possessions  with  them.  Such  wandering  people  are  called  nomads. 

i East  of  the  Caspian  sea,  the  plain  is 
desert-like  and  barren,  except  where  streams 
from  the  mountains  are  led  aside  in  canals 
to  irrigate  the  land. 

!!  The  surface  of  the  Caspian  sea  is  lower  than 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  but  the  surface  of  the  Aral 
sea  is  higher.  Both  these  seas  are  salt. 

The  Caspian  sea  is  more  than  four  times  as 
large  as  Lake  Superior.  The  Southern  end  of  this 
sea,  near  the  mountainous  coast,  is  very  deep. 

Thousands  of  people  earn  their  living  by  catch- 

!ing  fish  in  this  great  salt  lake  or  in  the  rivers 
which  llow  into  it.  Many  steamers  and  såiling 
vessels  are  engaged  in  carrying  freight  between  the  Caspian  ports. 

The  Caspian  and  Aral  seas  were  once  much  wider  than  at  present, 
— probably  at  the  time  when  a great  lake  stood  in  our  Basin  region. 
The  Aral  sea  then  had  an  outlet  leading  to  the  Caspian.  As  the 
climate  became  drier  and  the  seas  shrunk  away,  the  margins  of 
their  shallow  bottoms  formed  salty  plains.  These  plains  now  spread 
in  a wide  belt  around  the  seas  but  yield  only  coarse  grasses. 

72.  The  Pacific  Slope. 

From  Bering  strait  to  the  Amur  basin,  the  east  slope  of 
Asia  is  very  narrow  and  therefore  has  no  large  streams. 

The  Amur  river  is  the  natural  highway  from  the  Altai 
plateau  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  basin  of  this  stream  is 
so  far  from  the  equator  that  the  winters  are  long  and 
severe.  The  region  is  thinly  settled  and  is  largely  over- 
grown  with  forests. 

Name  two  rivers  that  flow  across  the  plain  of  China.  Where  do 
these  rivers  rise  ? What  mountain  range  divides  the  middle  parts  of 
their  basins?  Where 
is  the  Nan-Ling  range  ? 

Which  heat  belt 
crosses  the  basin  of  the 
Hoang-Ho  or  Yellow 
river?  In  which  belt 
is  the  greater  part  of 
the  Yang-tse  river 
basin  ? 

The  southeast 
slopes  of  Asia,  in- 
cluding  the  basins 
of  the  Yellow  and 
Yang-tse  rivers,  are 
watered  partly  by 
rains  from  the  sum- 
mer monsoon  and 
partly  from  w inter 
storms.  The  summer  rains  are  much  the  more  abundant. 

The  great  delta  plain  of  China  is  made  of  soil  carried 
down  by  the  Yellow  and  Yang-tse  rivers,  — mostly  by  the 
former.  This  delta  plain  contains  many  thousand  square 


69 

miles  and  is  one  of  the  most  thickly  settled  regions  in  the 
world. 

Above  the  delta  plain,  the  Yellow  river  flows  through  a district 
covered  with  deep  yellowish  soil.  This  was  brought  as  dust  by  the 


winds  from  the  dry  inland  Basin  region.  The  area  covered  by 
this  soil  is  far  greater  than  that  of  the  lava  plains  of  the  Columbia 
plateau  region. 

In  some  places  the  yellowish  soil,  called  loess,  is  hundreds  of 
feet  in  depth.  It  fills  valleys,  buries  hills  and  rises  far  up  the 
slopes  of  mountain  ranges.  Bivers  have  cut  deep  valleys  in  it,  and 
in  the  sides  of  the  valleys,  at  points  which  the  streams  no  longer 
reach,  millions  of  Chinese  people  have  dug  caves  for  hornes.  This 
soil  is  very  fertile,  and  gardens  cover  a large  part  of  the  region. 

The  Yellow  river  has  carried  down  countless  tons  of  the  yel- 
lowish soil  and  has  made  of  it  the  larger  part  of  the  great  delta 
plain  of  China.  Each  year  the  plain  grows  farther  into  the  sea,  for 
no  ocean  current  strong  enough  to  carry  away  the  silt  sweeps  past 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  Cities  in  China  that  were  once  seaports 
are  now  far  inland. 

The  delta  plain  of  the  Yellow  river,  like  every  other  delta  plain, 
slopes  gently  away  on  both  sides  from  the  muddy  river  which  brings 
down  the  soil.  Banks  have  been  built  along  the  river  to  keep  it 
in  its  proper  channel.  Several  times  the  water  has  burst  through 
the  banks  and  rushed  in  floods  over  the  plain.  Cities  and  towns 
have  been  swept  away,  and  many  thousand  people  have  been 
drowned.  The  Chinese  call  the  river  China’s  sorrow,  on  account  of 
the  destruction  and  suffering  it  has  caused. 

Each  overflow  of  the  Yellow  river  has  given  it  a new  course 
across  the  fertile  plain  and  a new  mouth  about  which  to  deposit 
sediment  and  thus  build  its  delta  forward.  In  the  course  of 
centuries,  the  river  has  shifted  its  mouth  three  hundred  miles  back 
and  forth  along  the  coast. 

The  Yellow  river  takes  its  name  from  the  yellowish  soil  which 
discolors  the  water.  This  river  performs  its  chief  work  in  making 
delta  lands,  for  it  is  of  little  use  to  steamers  entering  from  the  sea. 
The  current  in  some  places  is  very  swift,  and  numerous  bais  form, 
not  only  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  but  also  far  upstream. 

As  the  river  has  changed  its  course,  and  as  it  is  hardly  navi- 
gable,  only  a few  large  cities  have  grown  up  along  its  banks. 

The  Yang-tse  river  has  built  the  Southern  pai’t  of  the 
great  delta  plain  of  China.  This  stream  forms  the  best 
water  way  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Asia,  and  is  open  to 
large  steamers  for  more  than  a thousand  miles  from  the 
ocean.  Many  of  the  greatest  cities  in  China  have  grown 
up  on  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tse  river.  A 

Above  the  delta  plain,  for  a long  distance  inland,  the 
basins  of  the  Yellow  and  Yang-tse  rivers  are  rolling  or 


Loess  Beds,  Yellow  River  Basin,  China. 


70 


INDIA. 


A Cbinese  Junk. 


hilly.  The  western  portions  of  the  great  basins  are  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Tibet. 

The  leading  exports  from  China  are  tea  and  silk.  Rice 
and  a grain  called  millet  are  among  the  chief  food  products. 

The  tea  plant  is  hardy,  but  it  grows  best  in  a hot,  moist  and 
even  climate.  It  needs  a great  deal  of  rain,  yet  the  plant  dies  if 
placed  in  swampy  land. 

Several  times  a year,  crops  of  leaves  are  picked  for  curing.  • Care 
is  taken  to  nip  off  the  leaves  without 
injuring  the  buds  which  grow  where  the 
leaves  join  the  branches.  The  youngest 
and  earliest  leaves  are  the  most  delicate 
and  give  the  best-flavored  tea. 

The  green  leaves  which  are  to  be 
cured  and  sold  as  black  tea  are  first 
spread  on  trays  to  dry.  The  leaves  are 
then  roasted  for  a few  minutes  and 
afterwards  rolled  between  the  hands  to 
press  out  the  juices.  As  the  leaves  dry,  they  turn  black  and  are 
then  ready  for  use. 

The  green  and  the  black  teas  are  made  from  the  same  kind  of 
leaves,  but  for  green  tea  the  process  of  drying  is  completed  as 
rapidly  as  possible  after  picking.  About  four  pounds  of  fresh 
leaves  are  needed  for  eaeh  pound  of  tea. 

Silk  is  made  of  fibers  spun  by  silkworms.  These  little  creatures 
feed  on  the  leaves  of  mulberry  trees. 

Each  worm  makes  a silken  case,  or  cocoon,  by  spinning  fine  long 
threads  and  winding  them  around  its  body.  Some  of  the  cocoons 
contain  more  than  two  miles  of  silky  fiber,  and  yet 
they  are  only  about  as  large  as  robins’  eggs. 

The  cocoons  are  put  into  hot  water  to  kili 
the  silkworms ; otherwise  they  would  gnaw 
their  way  out,  spoil  the  cocoons  and  fly 
away  as  moths.  The  fiber  is  unwound 
from  the  cocoons  and  is  made  into 
thread  or  cloth. 

Southeast  Asia  and  the  adjaeent 
islands  are  famous  for  their  fine  silks. 

Hongkong  and  Shanghai  have  a 
large  trade  in  tea  and  silks. 

Canals  extend  almost  tbe 
whole  width  of  the  great  delta 
plain  of  China  and  form  fine  | 
water  ways.  They  supply  water 
also  for  large  tracts  of  land  on 
which  rice  and  other  products 
are  raised.  A large  inland  trade 
is  carried  on  by  way  of  these 
canals  and  rivers. 

More  than  two  thousand  years  ago,  a 
high  and  wide  wall  was  built  along  the 
former  boundary  of  China,  to  shut  out  fierce  — — 

Tartar  tribes  on  the  north.  The  wall  runs  for  Trained  Eiephants,  India, 

more  than  a thousand  miles  over  mountains  and  through  wide  val- 
leys.  Many  parts  of  the  great  wall  are  now  crumbling  to  mins. 

China  contains  about  one  fourth  of  the  people  in  the 
world.  The  Chinese  belong  to  the  yellow  race. 

From  the  Tibetan  highland  long  mountain  ranges 
extend  into  the  great  peninsula  of  Indo-China.  Swift 


streams  flow  in  the  valleys  between  these  ranges.  The 
longest  of  the  streams  is  the  Mekong  river. 

The  course  of  the  Mekong  is  in  many  places  broken  by 
rapids.  The  river  is  therefore  not  open  to  navigation, 
except  for  about  three  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  Mekong  is  building  a delta  plain,  but  it  is  not  nearly 
so  large  as  the  delta  plain  of  the  Yellow  river. 

73.  India. 

The  great  country  of  India  is  bordered  on  the  north  by 
the  Himalayas.  In  the  south  it  contains  the  plateau  of 
the  Deccan  in  the  large  V-shaped  peninsula.  Between  the 
Himalayas  and  the  Deccan  are  broad  river  plains. 

India  is  in  the  path  of  the  monsoons.  In  the  hot 
season  these  winds  blow  from  the  sea  to  the  land ; in  the 
colder  season  they  blow  from  the  land  to  the  sea. 

In  the  Indian  ocean  north  of  the  equator,  not  only  the  winds  but 
the  currents  also  flow  back  and  forth  as  the  seasons  change.  Soon 
after  the  wind  alters  its  direction,  it  turns  back  the  ocean  current, 
and  both  flow  together  till  the  monsoon  again  shifts  with  the  season. 

The  Himalaya  mountains  form  the  greatest  rain  and 
snow  producer  in  the  path  of  the  summer  monsoons  from 
over  the  Indian  ocean.  Both  the  northern  and  the 
Southern  slopes  of  this  range  are  drained  by  rivers  that 
flow  into  the  low  plains  of  India. 

The  largest  annual  rainfall  in  any  part  of  the  world  is 
supposed  to  be  at  the  town  of  Cherrapunji,  in 
the  mountains  about  two  hundred  miles  north 
of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  This  town  is  a 
little  more  than  4000  feet  above  sea  level 
and  is  walled  in  on  the  north  by  steep 
ranges  rising  2000  feet  higher. 

The  moist  monsoon  from  the  sea 
ascends  more  than  a mile  before  it  sur- 
mounts  the  ranges.  In  rising  over  them, 
the  air  expands,  cools  and  gives  down 
from  400  to  600  inches  of  rain  each 
year  upon  the  town. 

The  snows  of  the  Himalayas  are 
increased  by  winter  storms  which  drift 
eastward,  like  those  of  the  westerly 
winds  elsewhere.  The  northern 
plains  of  India  often  receive  light 
rains  in  the  same  season.  This  fact 
seems  to  show  that  in  winter, 
the  belt  of  westerly  winds 
reaches  far  enougli  south  to  in- 
fluence  the  climate  of  northern 
India,  both  in  the  mountains 
and  in  the  plains. 

To  avoid  the  extreme  heat  of  the  plains,  many 
Europeans  living  in  northern  India  spend  the  hot 
season  on  the  “hills,”  or  low  ranges  along  the  Southern  border  of 
the  Himalayas. 

Below  the  snow  line,  forests  cover  the  Southern  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas.  Near  the  foot  of  the  range,  trees,  vines,  bushes  and 
grasses  form  dense  jungles  in  which  tigers,  eiephants,  rhinoceroses 
and  other  huge  beasts  are  found.  One  of  the  pictures  on  page  68 
shows  some  of  the  tree  ferns  of  that  region.  See  pictures,  p.  117. 


INDIA. 


71 


Above  the  wet  jungles  is  a belt  of  hard-wood  trees,  — oak  and 
walnut.  Still  higlier,  the  mountain  slope  is  covered  with  rhododen- 
dron  shrubs  with  their  acres  and  acres  of  large  showy  blossoms.1 
Between  these  and  the  snow  line  stands  the  belt  of  soft-wood  or 
cone-bearing  trees. 

Most  of  tlie  rivers  of  the  plain  of 
India  are  included  in  three  systems,  — 
the  Indus  on  the  west,  the  Brahmaputra 
on  the  east,  and  the  Ganges  in  the 
middle  part. 

These  three  river  basins  are  in  the 
warm  belt  and  also  in  the  path  of 
the  moist  Southwest  monsoons.  The 
climate  is  therefore  hot  or  warm  most 
of  the  year.  The  heavy  rains  fall 
while  the  summer  monsoon  lasts.  The 
dry  season  occurs  when  the  winds  blow 
from  the  land  to  the  sea.  See  maps 
on  pacje  24. 

All  along  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  as  A Hlndu 

of  other  high  ranges,  cool  evening  breezes  flow 

from  the  mountain  valleys  and  enter  the  warmer  lowland.  These 
winds  last  far  into  the  niglit  and  greatly  lessen  the  sultry  heat. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  Indus  lowland,  near  the  foot 
of  the  Himalayas,  is  well 
watered  and  is  the  richest  | 

wheat  region  in  India.  The  Vg  W : 
lower  part  of  tliis  river  basin  /M. 

is  a desert.  f» 


State  Elephant,  India. 


Large  sand  bars  form  shoals 
in  the  bed  of  the  Indus  river. 

Navigation  is  therefore  difficult, 
but  steamers  succeed  in  going  up 
the  river  as  far  as  the  wheat 
countryq 

The  plain  of  northern 
India,  like  that  of  the  valley 
of  California,  is  formed  of 
land  waste  brought  by  the  rivers  from  the  mountains. 
Many  branches  of  the  Ganges  river  rise  in  the  Southern 
slope  of  the  Himalayas.  So  mucli  waste  in  the  form  of 
alluvial  fans  (see  pacje  8)  has  been  waslied  from  the 
slopes  of  this  range,  that  the  Ganges 
river  has  been  pushed  far  southward 
towards  the  Deccan.  Near  the 
mountains  the  coarse  waste  forms 
steep  slopes,  but  far  out  in  the  val- 
ley the  fine  waste  forms  very  gentle 
slopes. 

On  the  lowland,  the  divide  be- 
tween the  Indus  and  Ganges  basins 
is  formed  wliere  the  plain  built  by  the  rivers  is  a little 
higlier  than  on  either  side,  east  or  west. 

1 The  flowering  shrubs  in  the  picture  of  Mt.  Mitchell,  on  page  42,  are 
rhododendrons.  They  often  cover  thousands  of  acres. 


A Zebu  Cart,  Ceylon. 


Near  the  base  of  the  mountains,  the  gravels  are  moist  with 
ground  water  and  are  covered  with  forests;  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  plain  has  no  forests,  and  over  much  of  the  surface  there  are 
few  trees,  except  in  irrigated  gardens. 

The  Ganges  system  has  built  very 
large  flood  plains,  sloping  only  a few 
inches  to  the  mile.  In  the  rainy 
season,  these  plains  are  flooded  far  and 
wide,  thus  receiving  fresh  soil  from 
the  highland  slopes.  The  Ganges  and 
Brahmaputra  rivers  unite  in  making 
a large  delta  plain  crossed  by  a great 
network  of  distributaries. 

The  plains  of  the  Ganges  basin  are 
carefully  irrigated  by  means  of  canals 
and  ditches  leading  from  the  rivers. 
The  rainfall  of  the  summer  season  is 
thus  made  to  serve  for  the  entire  year, 
often  through  long  periods  of  drouth. 

Before  India  became  a British  possession, 
suffering  from  famines  was  common  when- 
ever  the  rains  came  late  or  in  small  quantity.  There  is  not  so 
much  suffering  now,  because  the  English  people  have  improved 
the  canals  and  have  also  built  railroads  which  can  quickly  carry 
supplies  to  famine-stricken  provinces. 

Rice  is  the  leading  crop  in  the  delta  lands  and  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  flood  plains.  Farther  inland,  millet  is 
the  chief  product  and  is  the  staple  food  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  India.  Cotton  is  the  most  valuable  article  of 
export  from  the  Ganges  plain. 

The  Ganges  river  is  navigable  for  more  than  a thousand 
miles  through  its  great  flood  plains,  and  is  alive  with  boats 
carrying  products  from  place  to  place. 

In  summer,  violent  thunderstorms  occur  in  the  Ganges  plain. 
Squalls  precede  these  storms  and  fill  the  air  with  dust.  Then 
follow  the  clouds  with  lightning  and  rain,  and  all  go  sweeping  down 
the  plain. 

Destructive  cyelones,  or  violent  whirling  storms,  are  common  in 
the  great  delta  plain  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  rivers.  The 
winds  sometimes  drive  the  sea-water  onto  the  low  delta  lands, 
forming  storm  floods  in  which  thousands  of  people  are  drowned. 

The  Brahmaputra 
river,  like  the  Indus, 
flows  in  a deep  in- 
land valley  on  the 
north  flank  of  the 
Himalaya  range. 

Cutting  through  the 
eastem  part  of  the 
range,  the  Brahma- 
putra crosses  the  low 
plain  of  northeast  Cart  drawn  by  Zebus’ Indla- 

India  and  joins  its  delta  with  that  of  the  Ganges  river. 
This  great  double  delta  is  slowly  growing  southward  into 
the  bay  of  Bengal. 


72 


ASIATIC  ISLANDS. 


The  teak  tree  abounds  in  India  and  in  the  large  peninsula  of 
Indo-China  still  farther  east.  When  the  wood  of  the  teak  has 
been  thoroughly  dried,  it  will  not  shrink,  warp  nor  crack,  even 
under  the  tropical  sun.  This  wood  is  very  strong,  is  easily  carved, 
and  takes  a fine  polish.  These  qualities 
make  it  very  valuable. 

The  lowlands  of  northern  India, 
except  the  desert  region  of  the  lower 
Indus,  are  densely  peopled.  These 
lowlands,  together  with  the  V-shaped 
peninsula  on  the  south,  support 
about  one  fifth  of  the  people  in  the 
world.  Most  of  the  natives  are 
called  Hindus.  They  belong  to  the 
white  race. 

Ages  ago  the  people  now  known 
as  Hindus  moved  into  India,  prob- 
ably  from  some  part  of  central 
Asia,  and  conquered  the  native 
tribes.  Many  of  the  descendants 
of  these  natives  are  now  found 
in  the  hilly  or  mountainous 
regions  of  India.  Highlands  are 
often  a place  of  refuge  for  man, 
as  well  as  for  the  lower  animals. 

Southward  from  the  Ganges 
basin  extends  the  great  V- 
shaped  peninsula  of  the 
Deccan.  This  is  mostly  a 
low  plateau  region,  about 
equal  in  height  to  the  Appalachian  high- 
land.  The  peninsula  has  low  ranges 
facing  the  sea  on  both  sides  and  is 
partly  separated  from  the  rest  of  India 
by  a hilly  range  on  the  north.  With- 
in  the  triangle  thus  formed,  about 
100,000,000  people  have 
made  their  homes,  — many 
more  than  dwell  in  our 
entire  country. 

The  Deccan  is  highest  on  the 
west  side,  and  its  main  streams 
therefore  flow  eastward  into  the 
bay  of  Bengal.  The  Western 
Ghats  rise  abruptly  from  a 
narrow  Coastal  plain.  The  steep 
western  slope  is  in  the  path  of 
the  Southwest  monsoon,  and 
therefore  receives  very  heavy 
summer  rainfall.  The  rains  of 
the  inland  plateau  east  of  the 
Western  Ghats  are  not  so  heavy. 

Can  you  tell  why? 

During  the  wet  season  the  rain  water  is  stored  in  large  hollows 
or  reservoirs;  then  when  the  dry  seasons  come,  the  water  is  led  in 
ditches  over  the  lower  tilled  land. 

The  lava-flows  of  the  Deccan  peninsula  have  been  fully  as  great 
as  those  in  and  around  the  Columbia  plateau.  In  each  case  the 


molten  rock  covered  many  thousand  square  miles.  The  Deccan 
lava-flows  are  much  the  older  and  the  more  deeply  cut  by  valleys. 
The  surface  is  finely  weathered,  making  dark  soil  that  is  very 
fertile.  The  middle  picture  on  page  14  shows  part  of  this  plateau. 

The  portion  of  the  Deccan  that  is  not 
buried  in  lava  is  mostly  an  old  mountain 
region  greatly  worn  down.  Gold  is  found 
in  the  stumps  of  the  old  mountains. 

The  rivers  which  flow  eastward  across 
this  peninsula  have  made  flood  plains  and 
deltas  of  wonderful  fertilit.y.  For  ages 
these  lowlands  have  yielded  immense 
crops  of  rice.  All  over  the  peninsula, 
except  on  the  rugged  mountain  slopes, 
cotton  and  grain  are  raised.  There,  as 
in  northern  India,  millet  is  the  chief 
. artide  of  food  among  the  masses  of  poor 
people.  Cocoanuts  are  a leading 
product.  See  picture  on  page  97. 

The  island  of  Ceylon,  off  the 
Southern  coast  of  India,  is  very 
fertile  and  yields  about  the  same 
lcinds  of  products  as  the  adjacent 
mainland.  A great  deal  of  cin- 
namon  bark  is  exported  from  this 
island. 

Railroads  lead  from  nearly 
all  parts  of  India  to  the  port 
of  Bombay  on  the  west  coast, 
to  Calcutta  in  the  Ganges 
delta,  and  to  Madras  on  the 
southeast  coast.  These  are 
the  chief  ports  through  which  the  cot- 
ton, rice  and  other  products  are  sent  to 
foreign  countries,  and  through  which 
clothing  and  tools  are  received  in 
return. 

74.  Asiatic  Islands. 

Long  curving  chains  of 
islands  lie  east  and  south- 
east of  Asia  and  partly  in- 
close  large  border  seas. 
These  islands  contain  hun- 
dreds  of  volcanoes,  many 
of  which  are  now  active. 

Fusiyama,  in  Japan,  is  the 
most  noted  of  these  volcanoes. 
Its  cone  rises  about  two  miles 
and  a half  above  sea  level,  and 
its  crater  is  very  deep.  Fusi- 
yama is  not  now  active,  but 
nearly  two  liundred  years  ago  it 
burst  forth  and  sent  a heavy 
shower  of  ashes  far  and  wide 
over  the  country.  Its  great  cone  was  cracked  and  split.  Many 
thousand  people  in  the  surrounding  country  were  killed  during 
the  eruption. 

To  the  people  of  Japan,  Fusiyama  is  a sacred  mountain,  and 
many  pilgrims  ascend  it  each  summer. 


ASIATIC  ISLANDS. 


73 


The  large  islands  in  the  Japan  gronp  consist  mainly  of 
old  volcanic  hilly  country,  but  there  are  also  many  wide 
plains.  Tea,  grain  and  the  mulberry  tree  are  raised  in 
the  uplands,  while  nearly  all  the  lowlands  are 
used  for  rice  fields.  Two  crops  of  rice  are  taken 
from  the  fields  eacli  year. 

A coarse  grass-like  plant  called  bamboo 
grows  in  Japan,  as  well  as  in  most  parts  of 
southeast  Asia  and  tlie  border  islands.  Bam- 
boo is  also  found  in  other  warm  lands.  The 
hollow  jointed  stems  grow  to  the  height  of 
forty  or  fifty  feet,  but  some  stems  are  more 
than  seventy  feet  high. 

Houses  and  boats  are  made  of  bamboo 
stems.  .The  seeds  and  tender  shoots  are 
served  as  food,  on  dishes  formed  from  the 
joints  of  the  stalks.  The  softer  parts  of  the 
stalks  are  beaten  into  pulp  and  are  used  in  making 
paper.  Strips  of  bamboo  are  made  into  baskets, 
chairs,  beds  and  various  other  articles.  Bamboo. 

The  rivers  of  Japan,  though  short,  are  useful  for  floating 
logs  of  cedar  and  pine  from  the  hilly  districts  to  the  saw- 

mills  near  the  coast.  Large 
flat-bottoméd  boats  on 
these  streams  carry  prod- 
uce  down  to  the  ports. 

The  people  of  Japan 
belong  to  the  yellow  race. 
Their  number  is  more  than 
half  as  great  as  that  of 
our  own  nation.  Yoko- 
Fusiyama,  japan.  hama  is  the  chief  port 

through  wliich  foreign  nations  trade  with  the  Japanese. 

Silk,  tea  and  rice  are  important  exports. 

Java,  Sumatra,  Bomeo,  Celebes,  the  Philippine  and 
many  other  islands  southeast  of  Asia 
are  often  called  the  East  Indies. 

Thousands  of  years  ago  these  islands 
were  probably  connected  with  the  main- 
land.  The  seas  around  them  are  shal- 
low,  and  the  broken  coastlines  formed 
by  the  drowning  of  valleys  show  that 
the  land  has  settled.  Moreover  many 
of  the  same  kinds  of  large  animals 
are  found  both  on  the  mainland  and  on 
the  large  border  islands,  but  not  beyond 
the  deeper  water  which  separates  these 
islands  from  those  nearer  Australia. 

Locate  Java  on  the  key  map,  page  91. 

In  what  direction  is  it  from  Borneo? 

From  Sumatra?  From  Australia ? From 
the  mainland  of  Asia?  What  rain  belt 
erosses  Java,  Borneo  and  Sumatra? 

The  groups  of  islands  in  the  East  Indies 
have  a hot  climate  and  abundant  rainfall. 

Their  soil  is  therefore  very  productive. 

Sugar,  coffee,  tea,  spices  and  rice  in  large 


Banyan  Tree 


CINNAMON 


CLOVES 


PEPI  ER 


quantitiesare  raised 
on  these  islands, 
but  chiefly  in  Java. 

The  banyan  tree  is 
found  in  some  parts 
of  the  East  Indies  and 
on  the  mainland  of 
southeast  Asia.  The 
branches  of  this  tree 
send  down  shoots  that 
take  root  in  the  ground. 
These  shoots  also 
branch  and  the  new 
branches  send  down 
other  shoots.  A single 
tree  may  thus  spread 
and  form  a grpve  covering  several  acres. 

Java  is  the  most  productive  and  the 
most  densely  populated  island  of  the  East 
Indies,  This  one  small -.island  supports  a popu- 
lation  equal  to  one  third  that  of  tlie  United  States. 

Most  of  the  people  in  the  East  Indies  belong  to  the 
brown  race.  Many  white  people  from  Europe  have 
settled  along  the  coasts 
of  the  islands,  especially 
in  the  seaports.  Nearly  all 
the  islands  are  claimed  by 
nations  in  Europe. 

Sumatra  consists  mainly  of 
a mountain  region  along  its 
Southwest  coast,  and  broad  low- 
lands stretching  from  this  high-  Mikados  Palace,  Japan, 

land  to  the  northeast  coast.  The  rivers  which  cross  this  lowland 
are  building  great  deltas.  Coffee  and  sugar  are  valuable  exports. 

Borneo  is  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  world.  Its  area  is 
equal  to  nearly  one  tenth  that  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of 
Alaska.  This  great  island  has  a central  plateau  from  which  several 
ranges  branch  into  the  Coastal  lowland. 

Among  the  Malay  people  of  Borneo  are  many 
tribes  of  Dyaks.  These  are  thought  to  be  descend- 
ants  of  the  earliest  natives.  The  Dyaks  build 
houses  or  huts  of  bamboo,  as  shown  in  the  picture 
on  the  opposite  page.  These  natives  weave 
cloth  and  make  iron  tools.  Among  the 
large  animals  of  Borneo  are  the  wild  ox 
and  the  orang-outan,  a man-like  ape. 
There  are  also  many  wild  pigs. 

The  Philippine  group  consists  of  more 
than  1000  islands.  In  the  more  rugged 
portions  of  these  islands  are  found  thou- 
sands of  dwarf  people  called  Negritos. 
The  more  fertile  lands  are  held  by  Malay 
people  who  have  driven  off  the  Negritos. 
There  are  also  many  Chinese  and  some 
white  settlers, — the  latter  being  Spaniards, 
for  the  islands  are  held  by  Spain.  Rice 
is  the  staple  food  of  the  people. 

Large  quantities  of  sugar,  liemp  and  tobacco  are 
raised  on  these  islands  and  are  the  most  valuable  exports 
from  Manilla,  the  chief  seaport. 


74 


RELIEF  MAP  OF  EUROPE. 


EUKOPE.—  MAP  STUDIES. 


75 


M 

On 

o 

D 


76 


REGION  OE  THE  ALPS. 


77.  Region  of  the  Alps. 

The  outlet  of  the  Black  sea  separates  the 
plateau  region  of  Southwest  Asia  from  a 
chain  of  highlands  stretching  westward  to 
the  Atlantic  coast.  The  Alps  which  form 
the  mountain-center  of  Southwest  Europe 
are  about  as  high  as  the  Rocky  mountains 
in  the  park  region. 

The  Alps  have  many  sharp  peaks,  for  they  are 
too  young  to  be  greatly  worn  down.  They  are  not 
nearly  so  old  as  the  Appalachian  highland.  Slight 
earthquake  shocks  are  frequent  in  the  Alps  and 
are  taken  to  mean  that  the  mountains  are  still 
growing  higher. 

As  in  other  young  and  steep-sided  mountains, 
there  have  been  many  snowslides  and  landslides 
in  the  Alps.  Villages  have  thus  been  destroyed  and  many  people 
killed.  Violent  blasts  of  wind  are  brushed  down  by  large  snowslides 
and  advance  even  beyond  the  snow,  blowing  down  trees  and  houses. 

Among  the  Alps  are  great  snow-capped  peaks  down  whose  sides 
long  glaciers  slowly  wind,  melting  in  the  valleys.  Mt.  Blanc,  the 

loftiest  of  these 
peaks,  is  about 
three  miles 


high,  — a little  higher  than  Mt.  Whitney  in  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
The  snow-cap  on  Mt.  Blanc  reaches  halfway  down  its  sides. 

The  Alps  are  pierced  by  several  railroad  tunnels.  The  St. 
Gothard  tunnel  is  nearly  ten  miles  long,  — the  longest  in  the  world. 
It  connects  the  Swiss  plateau  with  the  basin  of  the  Po  river.  Mt. 
Cenis  tunnel  is  near  the  western  end  of  the  Po  basin. 


Ridges  and  Troughs  of  the  Jura  Region. 

Beautiful  lakes  abound  near  the  margins  of  the  Alps.  The  Rhone 
river  flows  into  and  out  of  Lake  Geneva,  while  the  waters  of  Lake 
Lucerne  lind  their  outlet  in  a branch  of  the  river  Rhine. 

Thousands  of  cattle  graze  in  the  valleys  among  the 
Alps.  As  the  warm  season  approaches  and  the  w inter 
snow  melts  away,  the  cattle  are  driven  to  the  grassy 
slopes  high  up  the  mountain  sides.  The  cold  season 


finds  the  herds  again  in  the 
lower  valleys.  Chefese  is  a 
valuable  product  in  this  high- 
land region  and  is  a leading  article  of  export. 

There  is  very  little  coal  in  the  Swiss  plateau,  but 
swift  streams  supply  plenty  of  power  for  the  mills  and 
factories.  The  Swiss  people  weave  large  quantities  of 
silk  and  cotton  goods,  and  make  many  fine  watches. 


THE  SPANTS  H PENINSULA. 


77  • 


The  western  part  of  the  Alps  bends  southward  between 
the  valleys  of  the  Po  and  the  Rhone.  This  part  of  the 
inountain  chain  extends  to  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  sea. 

A long  branch  called  the  Apen- 
nines  runs  the  entire  length  of 
the  peninsula  of  Italy. 

On  the  western  side  of  the 
Rhone  valley  rises  the  broad 
range  known  as  the  Cevennes. 

These  mountains  are  mueh 
older  and  lower  than  the  Alps 
and  contain  the  sources  of 
many  streams  flowing  west- 
ward  to  the  Atlantic. 

The  Jnra  monntains  extend 
from  the  Rliine  river  Southwest 
in  to  the  valley  of  the  Rhone. 

Tliey  consist  chiefly  of  low 
arclies  or  folds,  so 
young  that  they 
have  not  yet  been 
greatly  worn.  See 
picture  on  opposite 
parje. 

From  Lake  Ge- 
neva  the  Rhone 
river  follows  a 
winding  course 
through  the  South- 
ern part  of  the 
Jura  ridges  and 
then  unites  with 
the  Saone,  turning 
al  most  due  south. 

The  mulberry  tree 
upon  whose  leaves  the 
silkworm  feeds  is  com- 
mon  in.  southernEurope. 

The  city  of  Lyons,  at 
the  junction  of  the 
Rhone  and  Saone  ri  vers, 
has  the  largest  silk 
manufactories  in  the 
world. 

The  Rhone,  like  all  | 
other  ri  vers  flowing  v 
into  seas  having  only 
faint  currents,  is  mak- 
ing  a delta.  This  river 
is  so  rapid  that  only 
steamers  can  stem  its 
current  above  the  delta  plain,  and  thus  reach  Lyons. 

On  the  north  of  the  Swiss  plateau,  many  old  and  low 
mountains  extend  far  out  into  Germany.  The  surface 


of  these  mountains  has  been  worn  down  to  layers  of  rock 
that  were  once  deep  in  the  earth.  They  are  riclx  in  iron 
ore  and  other  minerals. 

There  are  so  many  mines  in  these  old  moun- 
tains that  the  Germans  speak  of  all  mining  as 
inountain  work  (Bergwerk). 

On  the  east  the  Alpine  higliland  reaches  out 
to  the  Carpathian  range  through  which  the  Dan- 
ube  river  has  cut  a gorge  called  the  Iron  Gate. 
See  lesson  81.  On  the  southeast  the  higliland 
sends  out  branch  ranges  into  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. These  are  mostly  low,  like  the  mountains 
shown  in  the  picture  of 
Marathon,  on  this  page. 

78.  The  Spanish 
Peninsula. 

The  great  penin- 
sula in  Southwest 
Europe  is  known  as 
the  Spanish  penin- 
sula} The  lofty 
- Pyrenees  mountains 
extend  across  its 
isthmus.  This  great 
peninsula  is  shared 
by  two  countries,  — 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

Among  the  moun- 
tains of  Southwest 
Europe,  the  Pyrenees 
are  next  in  height 
to  the  Alps  and 
form  a lofty  barrier 
between  France  and 
Spain.  Railroad  lines 
have  been  built 
around  the  ends  of 
the  Pyrenees  range. 

Far  in  among  these 
mountains  is  the  little 
state  of  Andorra.  It 
occupies  a few  small 
but  elevated  valleys. 
There  are  only  a few 
thousand  people  in  the  entire  state, 
and  most  of  them  are  shepherds. 

It  is  claimed  that  more  than  a 
thousand  years  ago,  Andorra  was  set 
free  for  the  lielp  its  people  gave  to 
the  Franks,  or  people  of  ancient 
France,  in  their  wars  against  the 
Moors  who  then  held  parts  of  Spain. 
Andorra  is  now  free  only  in  name. 
The  little  state  pays  tribute  both  to  France  and  to  a Spanish  bishop. 

1 This  peninsula  is  sometimes  called  the  Iberian  peninsula,  after  the 
Iberian  tribes  which  lived  there  long  ago. 


THE  PO  AND  THE  APENNINES. 


. 78 


Some  of  the  buildiugs  made  by  the  Moors  may  still  be  seen  in 
the  Spanish  peninsula.  Grandest  of  all  is  the  Alhambra,  — the 
palace  and  fortress  of  the  Moorish  kings.  It  is  in  the  city  of 
Granada.  This  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and 
was  captured  the  year  that  Columbus  first  set  sail  for  the  New 
World.  See  map  of  Eu- 
ropa in  the  Supplement. 

A few  hundred  thou- 
sand  people  known  as 
Basques  live  in  the 
Cantabrian  mountains 
of  northwest  Spain. 

The  Basques  are  the 
remnant  of  early  tribes 
that  once  held  the 
Spanish  peninsula. 

These  mountains,  like 
many  others  in  the 
world,  are  a place  of 
refuge  for  the  descend- 
ants  of  å conquered 
people.  The  Basques ' 
are  mostly  shepherds. 


Mountain  ranges  almost 


The  Spanish  penin- 
sula consists  mainly 

of  broad  table-lands,  with  a border  of 
plains  on  the  east  and  the  west. 
inclose  the  upland  region,  and  other  ranges  extend  across 
it.  The  general  level  is  about  half  a mile  above  the  sea. 

This  broad  upland  surface  is 
swept  by  chilly  winter  winds  and 
is  parched  by  summer  sunshine. 
Only  the  spring  and  autumn 
months  are  mild.  The  rainfall 
is  so  light  that  the  plateaus  are 
almost  treeless. 

In  what  direction  do  the  principal 
mountain  ranges  in  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula extend?  Where  is  the  Sierra 
Nevada  of  Spain  ? 

Describe  the  courses  of  the  Ebro  and 
Guadalquivir  rivers. 

The  river  valleys  in  this  peninsula  are  fertile.  Those 
of  the  Ebro  and  Guadalquivir  rivers  form  the  broadest 
lowlands,  but  even  these  are  not  very  broad.  The  narrow 
Coastal  plains  also  are  fertile.  Those  on  the  west  and 
Southwest  coasts  receive  heavy  rainfall  ; those  on  the  east 
are  well  irrigated  from  immense  reservoirs  in  the  uplands.1 
Wheat  and  barley  are  the  chief  grain  crops,  but  the  penin- 
sula is  noted  for  its  vineyards  and  orange  groves.  Wine 
is  the  chief  article  of  export. 


Gibraltar  is  a fortress  belonging  to  the  British  nation.  The 
north  and  east  sides  of  the  huge  Rock  are  very  steep,  but  the  west 
side  has  a more  gentle  grade,  and  a town  has  been  built  at  its  foot. 
This  side  is  also  strongly  fortified  by  immense  walls  and  galleries, 
most  of  which  are  heavily  armed  with  cannon. 

79.  The  Po  and  the 
Apennines. 

Following  the  Medi- 
terranean  coast  from 
Spain  to  Italy,  we  pass 
Monaco , the  smallest 
state  in  Europe.  The 
total  area  of  the  state 
is  only  about  eight 
square  miles.  It  is  near 
the  southeast  corner  of 
France.  The  city  of 
Monaco,  in  the  state  of 
the  same  name,  occupies 
a rocky  headland,  as 
shown  in  the  picture. 

The  Po  river  flows 
through  a plain  that 
is  not  many  feet 
made  of  waste  worn 
The  lowland  consists 


The  Alhambra,  — Moorish  Palace,  Spain. 

narrow  Coastal  above  sea  level. 


This  plain  is 
from  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 
of  flood  and  delta  plains. 

The  melting  snow  and  ice  in  the  high  Alps  feed  many  of  the 
Po  branches.  One  of  these  flows  from  a glacier  on  Mont  Blanc. 

Along  the  northern  border  of  the  plain,  near  the  foot  of  the  Alps, 
are  some  of  the  Alpine  lakes  that  are  famous  for  their  beauty. 
Among  these  are  Como,  Garda  and  Maggiore.  These  lakes  lie  in 
places  where  the  country  seems  to  have  been  bent  down,  changing 
parts  of  the  river  valleys  into  basins.  Former  glacial  action  has 
aided  in  scouring  out  the  lake  basins,  and  much  waste  brought 
down  by  the  ice  still  lies  in  heaps,  or  moraines,  around  the  foot  of 
the  lakes. 


Spanish  Mllkman. 


On  the  Southern  coast  of  Spain,  near  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  a 
small  but  famous  peninsula  extends  into  the  sea.  The  body  of 
the  peninsula  consists  of  a mass  of  rock  about  two  miles  and  a half 
long,  known  as  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.  This  Rock  was  once  an 
island,  but  sandy  waste  filled  in  the  strait  at  its  northern  end,  and 
now  a flat  neck  unites  the  Rock  with  the  mainland. 

1 Many  of  the  reservoirs  were  built  centuries  ago  by  the  Moors. 


Monaco. 

The  Adige  river  drains  part  of  this  lowland  but  does  not  join  the 
Po.  The  floods  of  these  rivers  are  so  dangerous  that  long  banks, 
or  dykes,  have  been  built  to  confine  the  water.  As  the  streams 
continue  to  fill  their  channels  with  waste  from  the  mountains,  the 
dykes  are  built  higher.  In  some  places  the  surfaces  of  the  rivers 
are  now  higher  than  the  plain. 


THE  PO  AND  THE  APENNINES. 


79 


The  streams  flowing  from  lakes  into  this  lowland  are  clear,  but 
those  coming  directly  from  the  mountains  carry  sand  and  finer 
rock  waste,  and  are  building  up  the  plain. 

The  marshy  deltas  of  the  Po  and  the  Adige  are  rapidly  growing 
into  the  Adriatic  sea.  Some  places  that  were  once  seaports  are 
now  several  miles  inland.  Along  the  coast,  sandy  islands  almost 
inclose  lagoons. 

The  city  of  Venice  is  built  on  islands  in  one  of  these  lagoons. 

In  this  city,  canals  partly  take  the  place  of  streets.  Boats 
called  gondolas  are  seen  everywhere  on  the  canals. 

Irrigating  canals  reach  almost  every  part  of  the 
valley  of  the  Po  and  the  Adige,  making  it  one 
large  garden.  Grains  of  all  kinds  thrive  there, 
and  the  foothills  are  covered  with  vineyards.  The 
meadows  are  mowed  five  or  six  times  a year,  — 
yielding  fine  grass  for  dairy  cattle.  Mulberry 
trees  abound. 

Milan,  the  largest  city  in  the  Po  valley,  is  a 
great  railroad  center  and  therefore  a distributing 


point  for  exports  and  imports. 


f 

Railroads  from  this  city  lead  through  the  St.  Gothard  and 
Mt.  Cenis  tunnels,  about  which  we  read  in  lesson  77.  The  St. 
Bernard  pass  is  one  of  the  most  famous  passes  in  the  routes  over 
the  Alps  from  the  Po  valley.  Since  the  building  of  the  railroads, 

these  lofty 
passes  have 
been  little  used 
by  travelers. 

From  the 
fertile  plains 
in  the  north, 
the  Apen- 
nines  extend 
towards  the 
southeast 

through  the  entire  length  of  the  peninsula  of  Italy.  This 
range  is  older  than  the  Alps  and  has  no  such  lofty  peaks 
as  those  rising  on  the  northwest  of  the  Po 
basin,  but  the  upper  parts  of  the  Apennines 


crater  that  might  at  any  time  pour  forth 
lava  and  bury  them. 

There  came  a time  however 1 when  a 
great  cloud  of  steam  and  dust  rose  from 
the  crater  and  spread  far  out  over  the 
land  and  the  sea.  Lightning  played 
among  the  clouds,  and  showers  of 
ashes  fell  on  the  groves,  the  vine- 
yards and  the  cities. 

For  three  days  the  thick  dust 
shut  out  the  sunlight.  Bright 
flashes  lit  up  the  clouds,  as  the 
gases  burst  out  and  blew  off  the 
top  of  the  glowing  mass  of  lava. 
The  hot  steam  changed  to  rain 
and  mingled  with  the  ashes,  mak- 
ing rivers  of  mud  that  flowed  down 
the  mountain  sides,  sweeping  away 
the  vines  and  trees  and  burying  the 
cities.  When  the  eruption  ceased,  the 
layers  of  mud  and  ashes  were  so  deep  that  no 
trace  of  the  houses  could  be  found.  Centuries 
passed  and  people  no  longer  knew  where  the 
cities  were  buried  ; but  beneath  new  vineyards  and  mulberry  groves  2 
lay  many  works  of  art,  and  the  ruins  of  temples,  hornes,  baths 
and  paved  streets.  Some  of  these  have  now  been  dug  out,  and 
they  teach  us  a great  deal  about  the  customs  of 
the  Roman  people  who  lived  in  that  early  time. 

After  this  terrible  eruption,  Vesuvius  was 
quiet  for  about  fifteen  hundred  years.  Then  it 
again  became  active  and  killed  thousands  of 
people.  Now  and  then  the  volcano  breaks  forth, 
but  not  with  such  force  as  in  ancient  times. 

Mt.  Etna,  on  the  island  of  Sicily,  is  the 
loftiest  volcano  in  Europe,  yet  it  is  only  a little 
more  than  half  as  high  as  Chimborazo. 


Venetian 

Gondolier. 


Pass  of  St.  Bernard. 


Italian  Piper. 


are  buried  in  snow  all  winter. 

Cold  winds  from  the  northeast  often 
sweep  over  the  Apennines,  but  the 
foothills  and  Coastal  plains  Southwest 
of  the  range  are  sheltered  and  pro- 
duce  many  kinds  of  fruit.  Among 
these  are  oranges,  lemons,  olives  and 
grapes.  This  region  is  also  famous 
for  midberry  trees.  Silk  is  the  most 
valuable  export  from  Italy. 

There  are  many  volcanoes  in  Southern 
Italy  and  the  neighboring  islands,  but  there  is  only  one  active 
volcano  on  the  mainland  of  Europe.  That  one  is  Vesuvius,  near 
the  bay  of  Naples,  on  the  Southwest  coast  of  Italy. 

Many  centuries  ago  the  fertile  sides  of  Vesuvius  were  covered 
with  vines  and  olive  trees.  The  people  who  then  lived  on  the 
slopes  of  the  volcano  did  not  know  that  their  home  was  near  a 


Vesuvius. 


Rome,  the  most  noted  of  ancient  cities, 
stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  a small 
river  flowing  from  the  Apennines  in  middle  Italy.  About 
one  third  of  the  words  in  our  language  are  derived  from 
Latin , — the  language  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

The  beautiful  Terni  falls,  shown  in  the  picture  on  page 
76,  are  about  70  miles  north  of  Rome.  The  water  in 
one  part  of  the  falls  leaps  down  330  feet. 

On  the  northeast 
slope  of  the  Apen- 
nines, not  far,  from 
the  source  of  the 
Tiber,  lies  the  small 
free  state  of  San  Ma- 
rino. The  state  covers 
only  thirty-two  square 
miles  and  has  a popu- 
lation  of  about  8000 ; 

1 The  eruption  took 
place  in  79  a.d.  The 
cities  of  Pompeii,  Her- 
culaneum  and  Stabbe 
were  buried. 

2 The  eggs  of  the  silkworm  were  first  carried  from  China  to  Europe 
about  550  a.d.,  — nearly  five  centuries  after  the  great  eruption. 


Excavatlona  in  Pompeii. 


80 


THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA. 


but  small  as  it  is,  San  Marino  is  a very  old  state.  Mt>st  of  the 
people  in  tliis  small  state  tend  cattle  or  raise  wine  grapes. 

The  leaning  tower  shown  in  the  picture  is  in  risa,  a city  on  the 
Arno  river,  Italy.  Two  thousand  years  ago,  Pisa  was  only  two 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Arno;  now  it  is  six  miles,  for 
the  river  has  meanwhile  built 
its  delta  out  into  the  sea. 

The  famous  leaning  tower  is 
183  feet  high,  and  it  leans  13 
feet  from  an  upright  position. 

The  walls  of  the  tower  are  very 
thick  and  are  made  of  marble. 


80.  The  Balkan  Peninsula. 


San  Marino. 


Many  ranges  branch  from  the  eastern  end  of  the  Alps. 
Some  of  these  turn  towards  the  south  east  and  divide  into 
smaller  ranges  forming  the  highland  in  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula. Tliis  broad  peninsula  stretches  from  the 
Black  sea  to  the  Adriatic. 

The  Balkan  range  is  the  highest  in  the 
peninsula.  These  mountains  extend  east  and 
west  along  the  Southern  border  of  the  Danube 
basin. 

Forests  of  pine  and  oak  grow  on  the  Balkan  slopes 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  rugged  highland  of  this 
peninsula.  Thousands  of  swine  feed  on  the  acorns. 

The  roses  which  thrive  near 
the  Balkan  range  yield  a per- 
fume  known  as  attar  of  roses. 

The  lowlands  in  the  Bal- 
kan peninsula  are  very  fertile.  More 
than  one  half  the  land  is  arable,  or  fit 
for  plowing.  The  hilly  portions  afford 
good  pastures. 

The  middle  belt  of  the  Balkan  pen- 
insula is  occupied  by  Turkey.  Owing 
to  the  poor  way  in  which  the  country 
is  governed,  the  people  are  shiftless 
and  do  not  make  good  use  of  their 
land.  Wheat,  raisins  and  tobacco  are 
valuable  products.  Constantinople,  on 
the  strait  called  the  Bosporus,  is  the  chief  port  of  Turkey. 

The  Pindus  mountains  are  low,  but  they  run  like  a 
backbone  through 
the  Southern  part 
of  the  peninsula. 

There,  in  the  small 
country  of  Greece, 
many  deep  and 
broad  valleyslie  be- 
tween  the  branches 
of  this  range. 

On  the  plain  of 
Marathon,  shown  in 
the  picture  on  page 


Apollo  Belvedere. 


Lesning  Tower  of  Pisa. 


The  Bosporus. 


77,  the  ancient  Greeks  won  a great  victory  over  a large  army  of 
Persians.  This  plain  lies  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea. 
Most  of  the  mountains  in  Greece  are  small  and  greatly  worn,  like 
those  which  overlook  the  plain  of  Marathon. 

The  broken  coastline  of  Greece, 
and  the  many  bordering  islands, 
show  that  this  land  has  been 
partly  drowned.  Most  of  these 
islands  are  spurs  from  the  Pin- 
dus range,  not  wholly  covered  by 
water.  Some  of  the  islands  are 
of  volcanic  origin. 

The  Southern  part  of  Greece  is 
a peninsula  having  a very  narrow 
neck  known  as  the  isthmus  of 
Corintli.  A ship  canal  has  been 
cut  through  this  isthmus.  The  small  raisins  of  Greece  are  called 
currants,  — a corruption  of  the  word  Corintli.  Currants  are  the 
most  valuable  product  which  Greece  sends  to  other  countries. 

Many  years  ago  the  Greeks  were  famous  for  their 
learning  and  for  their  works  of  art.  They  built  grand 
temples  in  which  they  placed  beautiful  statues  made 
of  marble  or  of  ivory  and  gold.  Many  uf  the  marble 
statues  and  the  ruins  of  some  of  their  temples  still 
exist.  The  most  famous  temples  were  built  on  a 
fortified  hill  known  as  the  Acropolis,  in  Athens.1 

81.  The  Plain  of  Hungary. 

Where  does  the  Danube  river  rise  ? Describe  its 
course.  Name  a mountain  range  on  the  north  of  the 
Danube  basin.  Name  a range  on  the  south. 

The  Carpathian  mountains  partly  divide 
High  Europe  from  Low  Europe. 

The  lowland  part  of  the  Danube  basin  which  lies  South- 
west of  the  Carpathian  mountains  is  known  as  the  plain 
of  Hungary.  This  is  a young  plain  which  was  formerly  the 
bed  of  a lake. 

The  leading 
products  are 
sugar  beets 
and  gra  in. 

The  plain  of 
Hungary  sup- 
ports nearly 
one  fourth  as 
many  people 

as  there  are  in  the  United  States.  The  Danube  and  its 
branches  form  a water  way  to  almost  every  part  of  the 
plain.  The  main  river  affords  an  outlet  eastward. 

The  Danube  leaves  the  plain  of  Hungary  at  the  place  where 
the  inclosing  ranges  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  old  lake  basin  are 
lowest.  The  river  has  there  cut  a long  gorge  across  the  range. 
This  gorge  is  known  as  the  Iron  Gate.  See  picture,  page  77. 

1 On  the  highest  part  of  this  hill  stood  the  Parthenon,  — grandest  of  all 
the  temples.  Within  and  without  the  Parthenon  were  statues  and  friezes 
which  rank  foremost  among  ancient  sculptures.  Many  of  these  are  now 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  in  London. 

The  Apollo  Belvedere,  a copy  of  a beautiful  Greek  statue,  is  now  in  the 
Belvedere  gallery  of  the  Vatican  in  Rome. 


The  Acropolis,  Athens. 


THE  SCANDINAVIAN  PENINSULA. 


81 


In  the  gorge  the  river  flows  swiftly  over  a rocky  bed.  A large 
amount  of  money  has  been  spent  in  blasting  away  the  rocks  in  the 
river,  and  a long  canal  has  been  built  past  the  rapids. 

Below  the  gorge  the  river  wanders  through  fertile  lowlands  on 
its  way  to  the  Black  sea.  The  Danube  is  building  a great  delta 
through  which  a ship  channel  is  with  diffi- 
culty  kept  open. 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  Danube  basin, 
large  forest  areas.  have  been  cleared.  In 
rainy  seasous,  therefore,  the  water  now  runs 
quickly  to  the  streams,  washing  gravel  into 
the  valleys,  and  causing  floods  in  the  low- 
lands. An  attempt  is  being  made  to  re- 
forest  the  upper  slopes. 

Farthegreater  part  of  the  Danube 
basin  is  in  the  country  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  which  includes  the  plain 
of  Hungary.  The  leading  articles  of 
export  from  that  country  are  beet 
sugar,  grain  and  lumber.  V ienna,  the  largest  city,  is  built 
near  the  place  where  the  Danube  river  leaves  the  moun- 
tain  district  on  the  west  and  enters  the  plain  of  Hungary. 

82.  The  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 

The  Scandinavian  peninsula  is  the  largest  peninsula  in 
Europe,  — being  more  than  a thousand  miles  long.  The 
highland  in  this  great  tongue  of  land  is  very  old,  like  the 
Laurentian  highland. 

The  Scandinavian  highland  was  once  worn  low,  then  raised 
again,  cut  by  deep  valleys,  and  at  length  partly  drowned. 

The  western  slopes  of  this  highland  are  steep  and 
rugged.  They  descend  to  many  long  and  deep  fiords. 
Along  the  coast  are  countless  islands  formed  by  the 
partial  drowning  of  the  highland. 

The  western  slopes  of  the  Scandinavian  highland  resemble  the 
sides  of  the  Alps  in  having  glaciers,  torrents,  falls,  lakes  and 
forests  ; but  unlike  the  Alps,  the  old  Scandinavian  mountains  are 
often  flat-topped,  and  together  they  form  a rugged  plateau. 

There  are  some  small  ice-sheets  on  the  Scandinavian  highland. 
Long  ago  the  ice-sheets  were  much  larger.  They  then  spread  to 
the  lands  on  the  south  and  east  of  the  Baltic  sea  and  its  arms. 
These  ancient  ice-sheets  scraped  out  many  basins  where  lakes  are 
now  found.  They  also  deepened  valleys  that 
are  now  drowned,  forming  fiords. 

The  Sogne  fiord,  the  largest  of  the  drowned 
valleys,  is  more  than  a hundred  miles  long. 

See  picture  on  page  82.  Streams  on  the  high- 
land leap  down  the  cliffs  into  the  fiord. 

Along  the  west  coast  of  the  great  penin- 
sula extends  a series  of  banks  over  which 
the  water  is  shallow.  Beyond  them  the  water 
is  very  deep.  These  banks,  like  the  shoals  along  many  other 
shores,  abound  in  fish. 

The  Lofoden  islands  form  a group  off  the  northwest  coast  of  the 
peninsula.  The  tide  rushes  with  great  force  between  two  of  these 
islands.  Boats  are  sometimes  lost  in  this  strong  tide,  known  as 
the  maelstrom. 


The  eastern  slope  of  the  Scandinavian  highland  is  more 
gentle  than  the  western,  and  descends  to  a rolling  lowland. 
Many  rivers  cross  this  lowland  and  flow  into  the  gulf  and 
sea  on  the  east  and  south. 

In  what  Asian  lake  are  seals  found  ? Lake  Wener  also,  the 
largest  lake  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  contains  many  seals. 

The  Scandinavian  peninsula  is  in  the  path  of  the  moist 
westerly  winds.  The  steep  western  slopes  therefore  receive 
much  heavier  rainfall  than  the  lowland  on  the  east. 

Although  the  northern  part  of  this  peninsula  lies  within 
the  Arctic  circle,  no  portion  is  in  the  cold  belt.  The 
mildness  of  the  climate  along  the  coast  of  this  northern 
land  is  largely  due  to  the  drift  from  the  Gulf  stream 
part  of  the  North  Atlantic  eddy. 

In  winter  the  sea  and  gulf  on  the  east  of  the  peninsula,  as  well 
as  the  wide  straits  leading  into  them,  are  frozen  over,  for  here  the 
mild  winds  from  the  ocean  do  not  enter.  At  the  same  time,  the 
ocean  around  North  cape  is  free  from  ice.  Thus  the  heat  given 
to  ocean  currents  in  the  torrid  zone  proves  a great  blessing  to 
people  in  this  far-away  land. 

The  North  cape  is  so  far 
from  the  equator  that  in  the 
warm  season  the  sun  for 
more  than  two  months  does 
not  sink  below  the  horizon. 

During  the  cold  season  there 
is  a night  of  equal  length. 

The  other  days  and  nights 
vary  in  length  from  a few 
minutes  to  twenty-four 
hours. 

Two  countries  com- 
prise  the  greater  part 
of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  They  are  Norway  on  the 
west,  and  Sweden  on  the  east.  Nearly  all  the  people  in 
these  countries  belong  in  the  white  race,  but  the  Lapps  in 
the  north  are  a branch  of  the  yellow  race. 

Some  of  the  Lapps  keep  herds  of  reindeer.  Others 
catch  fish  in  the  lakes,  streams  and  sea.  In  winter  their 
land  is  buried  in  snow  and  ice. 

Large  crops  of  grain  are  raised  in  the  Southern  lowland 
of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  and  there  most  of  the 
people  live.  This  peninsula  is  in  the  great  forest  belt 
which  extends  from  the  Atlantic  ocean 
to  the  Pacific.  Norway  pine  and  fir  are 
leading  exports.  There  are  also  rich 
mines  of  iron  ore  in  the  old  rocks  of 
the  peninsula. 

The  people  in  these  countries  carry 
on  trade  cliiefly  through  the  two  large 
cities  of  Stockholm  and  Christiania. 

The  peninsula  and  islands  of  Denmark  form  a part  of  Scandi- 
navia.  The  surface,  climate  and  products  of  Denmark  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  lowlands  in  Southern  Sweden  and  Norway.  The 
people  of  these  three  countries,  except  the  Lapps,  are  called 
Norsemen,  meaning  northmen. 


Norwegian  Cart. 


North  Cape,  Norway. 


82 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


Iceland  and  the  Southern  part  of  Greenland  belong  to  Denmark. 
Iceland  is  a volcanic  island  about  300  miles  long.  Its  middle 
region  is  a table-land  less  than  half  a mile  above  sea  level  and 
covered  with  lava  and  sand.  Parts  of  the  island  are  buried  in  ice. 

Most  of  the  people  in  Iceland  live  near  the  coasts.  The  chief 
exports  are  eodfish,  wool  and  eider 
down.  No  grains  and  only  a few 


vegetables  are  raised  on  the 
island.  The  best-known  of  the 
Iceland  volcanoes  is  Mt.  Hecla.  It  has  been  in  eruption  several 
times  since  the  island  was  settled  by  the  Danes.  Volcanic  dust 
from  Mt.  Hecla  has  been  carried  as  far  as  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula.  Iceland  is  remarkable  for  its  geysers,  one  of  which  throws 
a column  of  water  about  one  hundred  feet  into  the  air. 


83.  The  British  Isles. 


even  seasons,  while  the  peninsula  has  low  temperature 
with  severe  seasons.  A great  branch  of  the  North 
Atlantic  eddy  drifts  past  the  coast  of  the  British  Isles 
and  tempers  the  westerly  winds  which  prevail  there. 

The  westerly  winds  over  La- 
brador bring  great  changes 
of  heat  and  cold  from  the  in- 
terior  of  North  America. 

The  slopes  of  the  British 
Isles  which  face  the  Atlantic 
receive  of  course  the  heaviest 
rainfall  from  the  westerly 
winds,  but  all  parts  of  the 
islands  are  well  water  ed. 

Most  of  the  high  land  in 
Great  Britain  is  in  the  north 
and  west  parts.  There  the 
rocky  coast,  like  that  of 
western  Scandinavia,  is 
broken  by  many  fiords 
and  fringed  with  small 
islands.  The  south  and 
east  parts  of  the  island 
are  mostly  lowland,  with 
clayey  or  sandy  shores. 

The  island  of  Great  Britain 
is  in  three  divisions.  What 
range  of  hills  separates  Scot- 
land  from  England  ? Where 
is  Wales? 

The  northern  portion  of  Scotland  is  very  rugged,  but 
it  contains  no  lofty  chain  like  the  Alps. 

The  Scottish  highlands  consist  mainly  of  lofty  uplands  and  long 
narrow  valleys.  Some  of  the  uplands  are  flat-topped,  like  those  of 
the  Scanditiavian  highland. 

Ben-Nevis  is  the  highest  point  of  land  in  the  British  Isles.  It 
is  a rounded  mountain,  not  quite  two  thirds  so  high  as  Mt.  Mitchell. 

On  the  summit  of  Ben-Nevis  there  is  a weather  observatory 
where  winds  and  clouds  are  coristantly  observed.  Much  has  tlius 
been  learned  about  the  upper  air  cur- 
rents  from  over  the  North  Atlantic 
ocean.  This  is  one  of  the  few  high- 
level  observatories  in  the  world. 

Many  of  the  streams  in  the  Highland 
glens  spread  into  beautiful  lakes,  or 
lochs.  These  may  be  counted  by  hun- 
dreds.  They  were  formed  by  glacial 
action,  like  the  lakes  in  the  northeast 
part  of  our  country. 

The  cattle  and  sheep  of  the  Scottish  cmioden  Monument.- 
highland  take  high  rank  in  quality. 

This  region  is  so  rugged  that  it  is  thinly  peopled.  The  Highlanders 
are  mostly  descendants  from  a race  of  brave  people  that  were 
long  ago  driven  from  the  lowlands  by  invaders  from  the  mainland 
of  Europe. 


1 This  monument  at  Culloden  marks  the  site  of  the  battle  which  decided 
the  fate  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  a royal  family  in  Scotland. 


Two  large  islands  and  many  smaller  ones  form  the 
group  known  as  the 
British  Isles.  Largest 
of  these  is  Great  Britain, 
the  most  important  is- 
land in  the  world,  yet 
it  is  only  one  fortieth 
as  large  as  the  United 
States.  Ireland  is  second 
in  size  among  the  Brit- 
ish Isles. 

The  British  Isles  are 
at  about  the  same  dis- 
tance  as  the  Labrador 
peninsula  from  the 
equator,  but  the  islands 

enjoy  a mild  climate  and  Jauntlng  Car.  Ireland. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


83 


Southward  from  the  Scottish  highlands 
spread  the  rolling  or  hilly  lowlands  of  a fine 
farming  district.  Under  many  of  the  farms 
are  mines  of  iron  ore  and  of  coal. 

Where  is  the  Clyde  river  ? A rich  farming  and 
mining  belt  crosses  the  Clyde  basin  and  ex- 
tends  to  the  coast  both  on  the  east  and 
the  west. 

Owing  to  the  nearness  of  iron  and 
coal,  the  city  of  Glasgow,  on  the 
Clyde  river,  has  become  a great  manu- 
facturing  center.  Iron  steamships 
built  on  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  may 
be  seen  in  all  the  large  ports  in  the 
world. 

The  mountains  in  England  and 
Wales  are  little  more  than  high  hills. 

Southward  from  the  Cheviot  hills,  the  highland  gradually 
becomes  so  low  that  it  merges  into  the  lowland.  In 

Wales,  the  ranges  are 
higher  than  in  Eng- 
land. This  highland 
district  in  England 
and  Wales  is  good 
grazing  land.  It  is 
also  one  of  the  ricli- 
est  coal  and  iron  re- 
gions  in  the  world. 
Many  large  manu- 
facturing  cities  are 
therefore  located  in 
this  part  of  Great  Britain.  Their  foreign  trade  is  carried 
on  chiefly  through  the  great  ports  of  Liverpool  on  the 
Mersey  river,  and  London  on  the  Thames. 

The  middle  and  southeast  parts  of  England 
form  a rich  farming  and  grazing  lowland,  but 
it  cannot  raise  enough  grain  and  cattle  to  feed 
the  millions  of  people 
who  live  in  that  coun- 
try. Shiploads  of 
wheat,  corn  and  beef 
are  sent  from  the 
United  States  to  Eng- 
land. Shiploads  of 
cotton  also  from  our 
Southern  plains  are 
sent  to  the  English 
mills.  In  return  we  re- 
ceive  many  kinds  of 

clotll  and  of  iron  goods.  Tower  ot  London. 

Before  coal  was  used  in  factories,  and  before  iron  was  needed 
for  engines  and  machines,  the  farming  lowlands  of  England  formed 
the  richest  part  of  the  country.  Western  England,  with  its  mines 
and  factories,  has  now  far  outstripped  the  eastern  lowlands,  not 


Scotch 

Hlghlander. 

rulers  of 
crowned. 


Scene  on  the  Coast  ot  Iieland. 


only  in  wealth,  but  also  in  population  ; not  because  the 
farms  are  poorer,  but  because  the  manufacturing  dis- 
tricts  have  made  the  greater  progress. 

London,  the  largest  city  in  the  world,  is  on 
both  banks  of  the  Thames.  This  is  the 
longest  stream  in  the  British  Isles,  yet 
it  is  little  more  than  one  half  as  long 
as  the  Hudson  river.  The  Thames,  the 
Hudson  and  the  Mersey  valleys  are  all 
slightly  drowned,  forming  deep  water 
ways.  They  carry  the  shipping  for  the 
largest  three  seaports  in  the  world,  — 
London,  New  York  and  Liverpool. 

On  this  page  are  pictures  of 
two  of  the  famous  buildings  in 
London.  Westminster  Abbey 
is  a very  old  cathedral  in  which 
for  centuries  the 
England  have  been 
The  Tower  of  London 
is  an  ancient  fortress  or  castle. 

Many  famous  men  and  women 
have  been  imprisoned  there  and 
then  executed  near  by,  but  it  is 
no  longer  used  for  a prison. 

Many  centuries  ago,  the  site 
of  London  was  the  place  where 
a number  of  roads  met  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames.  Marshes 
and  forests  made  the  roads  con- 

, , , . . , . , , Westminster  Abbey. 

verge  m that  neighborhood  and 

there  a town  was  started.  At  first  the  river  was  crossed  by  a 
ferry  ; then  as  the  town  grew  to  a city  a bridge  was  built.  Several 
large  bridges  now  cross  the  Thames  in  London. 

V The  slight  drowning  of  the  Thames  valley  carries 

the  deep  tidal  waters  as 
far  up  the  river  as  Lon- 
don. When  the  people  of 
England  began  to  trade 
by  way  of  the  ocean, 
London  became  the 
principal  trading  station, 
because  the  city  stood  at 
the  highest  point  on  the 
river  where  ocean  vessels 
could  meet  the  river 
boats  and  exchange  car- 
goes  with  them. 

No  other  city  in  Great 
Britain  is  so  well  situated 
as  London  to  carry  on 
commerce  with  the  main- 
land  of  Europe. 

The  British  nation  now 
has  a great  number  of 
large  and  small  colonies 
or  possessions  scattered 
over  the  earth.  Among  these  are  Canada,  Australia  and  India. 
London  owes  its  growth  largely  to  the  trade  of  the  British  people 
who  reside  in  the  colonies.  Before  1776,  the  eastern  part  of  what 
is  now  the  United  States  was  a British  possession. 


84 


LOW  EUROPE  — WESTERN  PART. 


The  groups  of  low 
mostly  near  the  coast. 
The  heavy  rollers,  or 


mountains  or  hills  in  Ireland  are 
The  inland  district  is  a wide  plain. 

storm-waves,  from  the  North  Atlantic 
beat  violently  against  the  rugged 
coast  of  western  Ireland  and  cut 
back  the  headlands  into  high 
sea-cliffs.  For  tliis  reason  the 
coast  is  dangerous  for  shipping. 
The  waves  beat  so  strongly  on 
the  steep  eliffs  that  eveu  in  fair 
weatlier  boatmen  can  hardly 
land  without  seeking  one  of  the 
harbors  in  the  bays. 


that  the  coasts  are  wearing  back,  and  that  the  strait  of  Dover  was 
once  narrower  than  it  now  is. 

Landis  End  is  a cape  at  the  Southwest  point  of  England.  This 
cape  is  not  far  from  the  tin  mines  of  Cornwall. 


Giant’s  Causeway,  Ireland. 


Large  areas 
of  the  plain  in 
Ireland  are  low 
and  boggy. 

Th ey  are  so 
level  that  they 
cannot  easily  be 
drained  and  are 
therefore  of  lit- 

tle  value  for  farming  or  grazing.  Thick  layers  of  decaying  moss 
cover  the  bogs  and  supply  a kind  of  fuel  known  as  peat,  or  black 
turf  The  peat  bogs  are  therefore  of  great  service. 

The  soil  in  many  parts  of  Ireland  is  suited  to  the 

growth  of  flax. 
Among  fiber  plants, 
flax  ranks  next  in 
value  to  cotton,  for 
cloth  making.  The 
flax  grown  in  Ire- 
land is  made  into 
the  fine  linen  for 
which  the  city  of 
Belfast  has  long 
been  noted. 


Lakes  of  Killarney,  Ireland. 


The  small  pictures  on 
this  page  show  some 
of  the  places  of  great- 
est  interest  on  or  near  the  coast  of  the  British  Isles. 

The  eliffs  of  Dover  face  the  strait  of  Dover.  The  high  shore  is 
made  of  chalk  and  in  clear  weather  can  be  seen  from  the  coast  of 
France.  On  the  French  coast  also  are  white  eliffs  that  can  be  seen 
from  Dover.  Tliese  high  banks,  like  all  other  shore  eliffs,  show 


Ireland,  in  the  path 
of  the  westerly  winds, 
lies  to  windward  of 
pingavs  cave,  isie  or  stafta.  Great  Britain  and 

therefore  receives  the  heavier  rainfall.  Ireland  is  of  ten 
called  the  “ Emerald  Isle,”  because  the  grass  there  is 
green  all  the  year.  The  inland  district  has  fine  grazing 
lands,  and  the 
country  is 
noted  for  its 
dairy  prod- 
uets. 


Hastings,  England. 


Hastings  is  a fishing  town  southeast  of  London.  Not  far  from 
this  town  a famous  battle  was  fought  nearly  a thousand  years  ago, 
when  William  the  Conqueror  crossed  over  from  France  and  invaded 
England.  This  is  known  as  the  battle  of  Hastings. 

Gia  nt’s  Cause- 


Shannon  River,  Ireland. 


way  is  on  the 
north  coast  of 
Ireland.  FingaVs 
Cave  is  on  the  is- 
land  of  Staffa,  off 
the  west  coast  of 
Scotland.  The 
rocky  columns, 
shown  in  these 
pictures,  are 
made  of  lava. 
Sheets  of  lava,  in 
cooling,  are  often 


divided  by  cracks 

into  countless  columns  like  these.  The  beautiful  lakes  of  Killarney 
are  among  the  low  mountains  of  Southwest  Ireland.  The  Shatinon 

river  drains  the  middle  lowland  of 
the  Emerald  Isle. 


84.  Low  Europe  — 
Western  Part. 


West  of  the  Alpine  highland 
lies  the  lowland  of  France. 

chaik  ciifis,  Dover,  England.  ]n  wliat  general  direction  do 

the  rivers  of  this  lowland  flow  ?.  Name  two  of  them. 


Between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  wide  mouth  of  the 
Gironde  river 


extends  a young 
Coastal  plain, 
low  and  flat. 
This  region  is 
known  as  the 
Landes  and  con- 
sists  of  wide 
marshes  and 
sandy  tracts. 


Land’8  End,  England. 


LOW  EUROPE  — WESTERN  PART. 


85 


Northward  from  the  micldle  Pyrenees  stretches  a gently-sloping 
alluvial  fan  built  of  waste  from  the  mountains.  The  length  of  tliis 
fan,  from  the  mouth  of  the  mountain  valleys  to  its  outer  edge,  is 
about  fifty  miles. 

The  people  in  the  Landes  are  mostly  shepherds.  Some  of  these 
go  about  on  long 
stilts,  but  the 
custom  is  dying 
out.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  Gironde 
basin  has  many 
large  vine- 
yards. 


windmills  and  cattle.  One  portion  of  these  flat  plains 
is  known  as  Holland,  or  the  Netherlands,  — meaning 
lowerlands.  On  the  Southwest  is  Belgium. 

The  Rhine  river,  above  its  delta  plain,  has  cut  a deep 
valley  through  a broad  rolling  upland. 
Many  of  the  Rhine  branches  also  have 

worn  valleys  in 
this  upland. 

The  Rhine  is  nav- 
igable  to  the  border 
of  the  Swiss  plateau. 
A channel  has  been 
cut  for  this  river,  in 
its  middle  course, 
so  as  to  give  a more 
direct  route  than 
through  its  old 
windings.  The 
Rhine  has  formed 
flood  plains  on 
which  many  large 
cities  have  been 
built.  The  valley- 
sides,  sloping  down 
to  the  flood  plains, 


Northward  from  the  Gironde 
river  the  central  part  of  France  is  rolling  and  liilly. 

Very  low  plains  lie  along  the  Southern  shore  of  the 
North  sea.  Part  of  this  lowland  is  a young  Coastal  plain, 
and  part  is  the  delta  plain  of  the  Rhine  river.  In  some 
places,  the  land  surface  has  sunk  below  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  dykes  have  been  built  to  keep  out  the  salt  water. 
Portions  of  the  plain  have  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea. 
Lagoons  were  surrounded  by  dykes  to  prevent  more  water 
from  flowing  into  them  and  were  then  pumped  dry. 

The  Coastal  plain  forming  part  of  this  lowland  is  covered  with  a 
layer  of  sand  containing  seashells,  and  is  therefore  known  to  have 
been  formed  under  the  sea.  Beneath  the  sand  are  layers  of  peat 
made  of  land  plants,  showing  that  the  region  was  dry  land  before 
the  sandy  layer  was  deposited  by  the  sea.  In  the  peat  are  found 
Roman  coins  about  two  thousand  years  old.  These  coins  show 
how  very  young  the  coastal  plain  must  be,  for  it  is  younger  than 
the  peat.  This  part  of  Europe  must  have  been  under  the  sea  and 
raised  again  within  the  last  two  j 

canals.  A man’s  wealth  ~ 

,1  i , i Battle-scarred  House,  Waterloo, 

may  there  be  counted  in  Beigium. 


are  far-  K-  ■ «SjsO 

lained  fur  v . R .f,  ■ J* 

i'.-  .iie  - ÉÉL*4**  ■fcTr'r~*'' 

^ - - . ^ - . -ic.-  =>i.  l:-  j 

land  through  which  the  Rhine  flows  is  an  old  mountain  region 
worn  low  and  even,  and  then  raised  again.  This  is  the  old  region 
mentioned  near  the  close  of  lesson  77. 

Most  parts  of  these  low  mountains  are  wooded,  and  the  Germans 
therefore  speak  of  them  as  forests  and  not  as  mountains.  Thus, 
they  refer  to  the  Black  forest  ( Schwarzwald ) — meaning  Black 
mountains.  In  the  forests  are  firs,  pines,  oaks  and  bgeches,  — 
both  soft-wood  and  hard-wood  trees. 

This  old  upland  region,  rich  in  iron  ore  and  coal,  ex- 
tends  across  Belgium  and  into  France;  also,  eastward 
through  Germany.  The  old  mountains  which  rise  above 
the  upland  are  the  hardest  parts  of  the  region,  not  yet 
worn  down  to  the  general  level. 

The  battle-scarred  house  sliown  in  the  picture  is  near  the  village 
of  Waterloo,  about  nine  miles  southward  from  Brussels,  in  Belgium. 
The  house  was  torn  by  shot  and  shell  in  the  great  battle  of  Water- 
loo, in  which  the  power  of  Napoleon  was  broken.  This  famous 
French  general  was  banished  to  the  lonely  island  of  St.  Helena, 
where  he  died.  See  map  on  page  89. 

Northeastward  from  the  Netherlands,  low  swampy  or 
sandy  coastal  plains  border  on  the  North  and  Baltic  sea- 
coasts.  These  lowlands  are  crossed  by  the  Elbe,  the  Oder 
and  the  Yistula  rivers,  flowing  from  the  border  of  the 
highland  region. 


86 


LOW  EUROPE  — EASTERN  PART. 


In  this  lowland  ended  the  ancient  ice-sheets  which  crept  from 
the  snowy  Scandinavian  liighland  across  the  Baltic  sea.  See  lesson 
83.  As  the  ice  melted  at  its  Southern  end  along  the  coast  of  Ger- 
many, the  rock  waste  which  had  been  dragged  along  formed  many 
low  hills,  or  moraines.  In  the  hollows  among  tliese  moraines  lie 
countless  little  lakes. 

Along  the  south  shore  of  the  Baltic  sea  are  many 
bays  partly  inclosed  by  bars  like  those  along  the 
Carolina  coast  in  the  United  States. 

The  regions  on  the  west  and  north  of 
the  Alpine  higliland  are  in  the  path  of 
the  westerly  winds  of  the  cool  belt  and 
are  therefore  well  snpplied  with  rainfall. 

Cereals  are  plentiful  in  the  rolling  up- 
lands,  and  many  of  the  sunny  slopes  of 
the  river  valleys  are  covered  with  vine- 
yards,  Most  of  the  grapes  are  used  in  making 
wine,  some  of  which  is  sent  to  our  country. 

A large  and  thriving  industry,  on  the  plains 
reaching  from  France  through  Germany  and  into  the 
valley  of  the  Danube,  consists  in  raising  sugar  beets  and 
making  sugar  from  their  juice. 

We  have  learned  that  iron  ore,  coal  and  other  minerals 

abound  in  the  old  mountain 
uplands.  Tliese  products 
have  led  to  the  building 
of  mills  and  factories  of 
almost  every  kind.  Cloth 
and  iron  goods  are  leading 
manufactures. 

Excellent  clay  for  mak- 
ing pottery,  and  sand  for 
making  glass,  are  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  region  west  and  north  of  the  Swiss 
liighland. 

The  western  part  of  Low  Europe  is  thickly  settled, 
because  the  climate  is  good,  the  country  is  suited  to  easy 
travel,  and  products  are  plentiful.  Among  the  great 
centers*>f  trade  are  Paris,  Antwerp,  Amsterdam,  Hamburg 
and  Berlin. 

85.  Low  Europe  — Eastern  Part. 

The  great  lowland  of  eastern  Europe  is  known  as  the 
plain  of  j Russia.  It  forms  with  the  Siberian  plain  the 
northern  lowland  of  Eurasia.  The  plain  of  Russia 
stretches  from  the  Black  sea  and  the  Caucasus  mountains 
to  the  Arctic  coast,  and  includes  one  half  of  the  continent.1 

One  of  the  richest  petroleum  fields  known  in  the  world  is  in  the 
region  of  the  Caucasus  mountains.  Oil  abounds  near  both  the 
east  and  the  west  ends  of  the  range.  In  recent  years  much  atten- 
tion  has  been  given  to  the  boring  of  wells,  and  to  the  refining  and 
shipping  of  the  oil.  This  region  now  rivals  the  oil  fields  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Alleghany  plateau. 

1 Mt.  Elbruz,  in  the  Caucasus  range,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe, 
but  its  summit  is  nearly  1000  feet  lower  tlian  that  of  Mt.  Logan. 


The  cold  and  heavy  winter  air  of  the  interior  plain 
of  Russia  helps  to  keep  out  the  sea-winds.  The  heaviest 
rainfall  therefore  is  in  summer  when  the  heated  air  is 
light  and  is  easily  pushed  upward  by  the  cooler  winds 
from  over  all  the  border  waters.  Tliese  sea- 
winds  of  summer  cause  showers  and  tliun- 
derstorms  like  those  on  our  prairies. 

As  the  whirling  westerly  storms  pass  over 
the  Russian  plain  they  draw  in  warm  winds 
from  the  south  and  cold  winds  from  the 
north,  giving  changeable  weather 
like  that  in  the  Mississippi  valley. 

The  northern  portion  of 
the  plain  of  Russia  consists 
of  frozen  treeless  tundras  like 
those  along  the  Arctic  coasts  of 
America  and  Asia.  South  of  the 
tundras  lies  the  forest  belt  which  crosses 
the  northern  plain  of  all  Eurasia. 

The  portion  of  the  Russian  plain  known  as  Finland  is 
very  flat  and  contains  thousands  of  lakes.  The  Southern 
half  of  Finland  is  in  the  forest  belt,  but  the  northern 
part  merges  into  the  desolate  tundras. 

The  surface  of  Finland  was  scoured  by  the  ancient  ice-sheet 
which  spread  out  from  Scandinavia.  This  region,  like  New  Eng- 
land, has  many  lakes  formed  by  the  scouring  of  the  ice  or  by  the 
heaping  of  its  rock  waste.  There  are  also  many  falls  caused  by  the 
turning  of  streams  into  new  channels  across  rocky  ledges. 

On  the  south  of  the  forest  belt  are  fertile  treeless 
plains  extending  to  the  Black  sea  and  to  the  salty  steppes 
around  the  Caspian  sea.  The  plains,  except  in  the  drier 
salty  portion,  yield  immense  crops  of  grain,  and  afford 
pasturage  to  large  numbers  of  cattle,  horses  and  sheep. 

Through  the  forest  belt  and  across  the  plains  flows 
the  Yolga,  the  largest  river  in  Europe.  The  Yolga  basin 
comprises  about  one  fifth  of  the  plain  of  Russia.  The 
main  river  in  this  basin  rises  in  marshes  near  the  V aldai 
hills.  These  hills  are  only  a few 
hundred  feet  above  sea  level,  but 
many  large  streams  rise  in  or  near 
them. 

For  a long  distance  the  Yolga  flows  east- 
ward,  separated  by  an  almost  level  plain  from 
the  Dwina  on  the  north.  Into  wliat  bodies 
of  water  do  these  rivers  flow  ? 

The  Volga  river,  with  its  network 
of  canals,  forms  the  main  water  way 

ow  Ben  oi  moscow.  ^rough  the  Russian  plains.  It  reaches 

almost  all  parts  of  the  forest  and  grain  districts,  the  min- 
ing region  in  the  Ural  mountains,  the  fur  belt  in  the 
Dwina  basin,  the  oil  wells  near  the  Caucasus  range,  and 
the  salt  beds  around  the  Caspian  sea.  These  water 
routes  lead  to  all  the  border  seas  of  the  plain  of  Russia. 

St.  Petersburg  is  the  largest  city  in  Russia.  Odessa  is 
the  chief  grain  port  in  the  Southern  part  of  the  great  plain. 


Lorely  Rock  on  the  Rhine. 


A F R 1 0 A. 


87 


86.  Africa.1 

A deep  and  wide  canal,  about  one  hundred  miles  long, 
has  been  dug  across  tlie  isthmus  of  Suez.  The  canal  has 
no  locks,  for  the  two  seas  which  it  connects  are  on  about 
the  same  level. 

Before  the  Suez  canal  was  made,  the  water  route  from  all  ports 
in  Europe  to  India  led  around  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  Vessels 
can  now  go  tlirough  the  canal  and  thus  save  about  4000  miles  in 
the  voyage.  Port  Said  is  at  the  Mediterranean  end  of  the  canal. 
See  picture  on  page  90. 

The  canal  is  used  cliiefly  by  steamers  and  they  pay  a high  toll. 
Såiling  vessels  that  pass  through  the  canal  are  towed,  and  as  the 
expense  is  very  great,  nearly  all  vessels  that  depend  on  sails  and 
wind  go  round  the  Cape. 

Africa  has  a rounded  outline,  broken  by  very  few  bays. 
Al  most  the  entire  continent  is  a highland.  Its  average 
height  above  se?f  level  is  double  that  of  Europe.  The 
Southern  half  is  higher  than  the  northern,  and  the  eastern 
part  is  higher  than  the  western.  The  Coastal  plains  are 
very  narrow,  because  the  border  ranges  of  the  highland 
lie  near  the  sea.  Almost  all  parts  of  the  continent  inland 
from  the  coast 
ranges  consist  of 
plateaus. 

All  the  great 
rivers  of  this 
continent  have 
falls  or  rapids, 
and  not  a stream 
is  open  very  far 
inland  to  large 
vessels  from  the 
sea.  Great  areas 
in  Africa  are 
deserts.  The 
Coastal  regions 
near  the  equa- 
tor  are  very  un- 
healthful.  For 
these  and  other 
reasons,  large 
parts  of  Africa 
are  still  little 
known.  Until 
the  present  cen- 
tury,  only  parts 
of  the  Coastal 
regions  of  the  “ Dark  Continent  ” had  been  explored, 
except  the  lands  in  the  north ; but  we  know  far  more 
about  inner  Africa  to-day  than  was  known  about  inner 
North  America  one  hundred  years  ago. 

1 The  map  studies  on  page  89  are  to  precede  this  lesson. 


Water  Carrler  ol  Morocco,  Northern  Africa. 


Africa  is  the  hottest  of  the  continents.  Only  the  ex- 
treme  Southern  part  of  this  great  land  mass  is  in  the  cool 
belt. 

A wide  region  across  the  middle  of  the  continent  is 
visited  by  the  equatorial  rains.  The  southeast  coast  is  in 

the  path  of  the 
trade  winds  from 
over  the  Indian 
ocean.  These 
winds  give  rain- 
fall  to  the  sea- 
ward  slopes  of 
the  highlands  in 
their  path,  but 
give  very  little 
moisture  to  the 
inland  region  of 
Southern  Africa. 

The  Sahara 
desert  is  swept 
by  the  northeast 
trade  av  in  ds. 
Their  effect  is 
very  drying,  be- 
cause they  blow 
mostly  from  over 
wide  land  areas 
and  gradually  be- 
come  warmer  as 
they  approach  the  heat  equator. 

At  the  north  and  south  ends  of  the  continent, 
the  highland  slopes  facing  the  sea  receive  winter 
rains  when  the  trade  winds  shift  towards  the 
equator,  and  the  storms  of  the  westerly  winds 
reach  those  parts  of  the  continent.  See  maps 
on  page  24.  The  summers  are  dry. 

Because  of  this  arrangement  of  winds  and 
rains,  Africa  has  a wide  forest  belt  across  its 
equatorial  region,  where  the  rains  are  frequent 
and  heavy.  On  both  sides  of  this  belt,  the 
forests  merge  into  open  grassy  plains,  where 
the  rains  are  lighter,  — falling  when  the  equa- 
torial rain  belt  moves  over  them.  Beyond  these 
grassy  plains  lie  desert  regions,  — the  Sahara 
in  the  north  and  the  Kalahari  in  the  south. 

Near  the  equator  the  summer  heat  is  not  so  strong  as 
it  is  in  the  deserts.  In  the  middle  belt  of  the  continent, 
clouds  shut  out  much  of  the  sunshine,  and  dense  forests  shelter  thé 
ground  when  the  sun  shines  from  a cloudless  sky.  In  this  belt, 
the  land  and  the  air  are  also  cooled  by  frequent  rains. 

Intense  summer  heat  is  felt  in  the  Sahara  and  Kalahari  deserts, 
but  especially  in  the  former,  although  it  is  so  far  from  the  equator. 
There  are  neither  trees  nor  grasses  to  shield  the  surface.  During 


Woman  of  Morocco. 


88 


REIiIEF  MÅP  OF  AFRICA. 


MAP  STUDIES.  — EGYPT  AND  THE  NIDE. 


89 


the  day,  the  dry  sand  or  rock  is  quickly  heated,  and  in  turn  heats 
the  air.  During  the  night,  the  bare  surface  and  the  cloudless  air 
often  become  very  cool. 

The  Southern  half  of  Africa  is  not  so  hot  as  the  northern.  In 
the  south  the  continent  is  narrower  and  the  interior  is  nearer  the 
sea.  The  inland  regions  are  tlierefore  sooner  reached  by  sea-winds, 
with  clouds  and  occasional  rains. 


88.  Egypt  and  the  Nile. 


The  highest  plateau  in  Africa  is  that  of  Abyssinia.  Its 
east  slope  facing  the  Red  sea  is 
steep  and  is  not  broken  by  large 
river  valleys.  The  west  slope  is 
more  gentle  and  is 
drained  by  branches 
of  the  Nile  river. 

The  main  river 
of  the  Nile  system 
rises  in  the  lake 
region  of  middle 
Africa  and  is  the 
only  large  river 
flowing  northward  to 
the  Mediterranean  sea. 
The  basin  of  the  Nile  is 
thought  to  be  about  as 
large  as  that  of  the  Mis- 

Egyptlan.  ' ~ W sissippi. 

Where  is  Lake  Victoria  (Victoria  Nyanza)  ? On  which  side  of 
the  equator  does  the  greater  part  of  this  lake  lie  ? 

Lake  Victoria 
is  about  three 
fourthsof  a mile 
above  sea  level. 

Its  outlet  is  the 
river  Nile. 

N a m e two 
Nile  branches 
that  rise  in  the 
highland  of 
Abyssinia. 

For  about  five 
hundred  miles 
along  the  White 
Nile,  above  its 
junction  with 
the  Blue  Nile, 
there  is  only  a 
narrow  f ringe 

of  verdure.  The  rainfall  is  light  and  the  country  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  resembles  the  steppes  of  Russia.  In  some  places  however 

are  park-like  plains  where  grassy 
tracts  alternate  with  groves.  Giraffes 
and  elephants  browse  in  the  wooded 
parts  of  the  plains.  Acres  of  lilies 
float  on  the  still  water  of  the  river, 
and  many  crocodiles  and  hippopota- 
muses  swim  about. 

The  Blue  Nile  and  the  Atbara  are 
the  main  branches  from  the  east. 
During  the  northern  summer,  when 
the  equatorial  rains  reach  the  high- 
land of  Abyssinia,  many  torrents 
pour  down  these  tributaries  ; but  as 
the  dry  season  approaches,  the  tor- 
rents dwindle  away  till  only  muddy 


EQUATOR 


87.  Map  Studies. 


Note : Now  that  we  have  studied  four  continents,  we  should  be 
able  to  read  maps,  without  the  aid  of  many  questions. 

Describe  the  position  of  Africa  with  regard  to  the  other  con- 
tinents and  the  oceans. 

Sketcli  the  map  of  Africa.  Which  of  the  continents  that  we 
have  studied  does  it  most  closely  resemble  ? 

How  does  Africa  compare  in  size  with  North  America  ? With 
Asia  ? Compare  globe  maps. 

What  does  the  relief  map  show  about  the  surface  of  Africa  ? 

Describe  the  courses  of  five  large 
rivers  in  this  continent. 

Refer  to  the  maps  on  pages  21, 

24  and  25,  and  tell  what  you  can 
about  the  heat  beits  and  seasons  in 
Africa,  — the  winds  which  carry 
moisture  to  it,  — and  the  ocean  cur- 
rents  which  reach  its  shores. 

In  what  respects  is  Africa  like 
any  other  continent  ? In  what  ré- 
spects  does  Africa  differ  from  each 
of  the  other  continents  ? 

What  seas  almost  sever  Africa 
from  Eurasia  ? What  isthmus  con- 
nects  the  two  land  masses  ? Sphlnx  and  Pyramld,  Egypt. 


AFRICA 

KEY  TO  RELIEF  MAP 

SCAtE  OF  MILES 

6 200  4U0  ooo  sytrTooo  1200  c.  of  Good 


90 


EGYPT  AND  THE  NILE. 


pools  or  even  dry  ehannels  remain.  The  deeply-cut  beds  of  these 
streams  show  that  a great  amount  of  waste  has  been  carried  away. 
A large  part  of  the  finer  waste  is  borne  down  the  Nile. 

For  hundreds  of  miles  tliis  great  river  flows  through  the  desert 
and  does  not  receive  a single  tributary.  There  the  river  has 
cut  a long  and  broad  valley  and  has  made  a flood  plain  several  miles 
in  width.  Every  summer,  after  the  equatorial  rains  have  fallen 
in  the  highland  of  Abyssinia  and  in  the 
lake  region  of  middle  Africa,  the  Nile 
overflows  its  flood  plain  and  deposits  a 
thin  coating  of  new  soil.  Most  of  this  sed- 
iment is  given  by  the  Atbara  to  the  Nile. 

This  river  earries  a large  amount  of 
rock  waste  down  to  the  Mediterranean 
sea  and  there  adds  to  a great  delta  which 
has  been  growing  for  ages.  Wlien  the 
Nile  is  flooded,  it  pours  into  the  sea 
nearly  five  times  as  much  water  as  when 
the  flood  has  gone  down. 

The  Nile  river  is  about  as  long  as  the 
main  stream  in  the  Mississippi  basin. 

The  course  of  the  Nile,  however,  is 
broken  by  rapids  or  cataraets  which 


The  Mississippi  river  becomes  broader  and  deeper  as  it  flows 
onward,  but  the  Nile  becomes  narrower  and  shallower  in  its  lower 
course.  Can  you  tell  why  ? 

In  har  vest  time  on  the  fertile  delta  and  flood  plain  s of 
the  Nile  may  be  seen  cotton,  sugar  cane,  rice,  wheat, 
corn  and  other  products  like  those  raised  on  the  Southern 

plains  of  the  United 
States.  Cattle  and 
sheep  also  graze  in  the 
pastures  of  the  Nile 
valley. 

The  flood  plains  of 
the  lower  Nile  are  one 
of  the  most  thickly 
settled  parts  of-  the 
world.  Most  of  the 
people  belong  to  the 
white  race,  although 
their  skin  is  very 
dark.  Millions  of 
Negroes  dwell  in  the 


greatly  hinder  navigation.  Large 
vessels  can  ascend  the  river  as 
far  as  the  first  cataract,  near  the 
tropic  of  Cancer.  Several  cara- 
van rontes  across  the  desert  lead 
to  the  river  port  of  Assouan,  below  this 
cataract.  There  the  gums,  oil,  salt  or  ivory 
carried  for  hundreds  of  miles  by  camels,  can  be 
placed  on  boats  and  floated  down  to  the  large 
cities  in  the  delta  plain.  Small  vessels  can  be  hauled  over  the  first 
cataract  and  can  then  sail  up  to  the  second.  There  are  many  boats 
on  the  river  between  the  upper  cataraets. 

How  different  is  the  basin  of  the  Nile  from  that  of  the  Missis- 
sippi ! One  has  only  a narrow  strip  of  fertile  land  with  wide 
deserts  on  either  side.  The  other  also  has  its  fertile  flood  plain, 
but  this  is  bordered  by  uplands  of  wonderful  fertility. 

How  different  are  the  rivers  in  these  great  basins  ! The  Nile  is 
open  to  large  vessels  for  only  about  five  hundred  miles  in  a direct 
line  from  its  mouth,  and  within  that  distance  there  is  not  a single 
tributary.  The  Mississippi  and  its  branches  afford  thousands  of 
miles  of  water  navigable  from  the  sea  and  leading  to  almost  every 
part  of  the  wide  fertile  plain. 


Entrance  to  Suez  Canal. 

basin  of  the  upper  Nile,  in  middle  Africa. 

Cairo,  the  trade  center  of  the  delta  and  flood  plains  of 
the  Nile  valley,  is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in 
all  Africa.  It  is  a very  old  city. 

In  Lower  Egypt  are  found  the  greatest  monuments  ever  buiit  by 
man.  They  are  known  as  pyramids  and  are  the  tombs  of  the  ancient 
kings.  See  pieture  on  page  89.  Several  pyramids  can  be  seen  from 
the  citadel  of  Cairo.  One  of  these  is  now  450  feet  high,  and  the 
length  of  each  side  of  its  square  base  is  about  750  feet,  or  nearly 
one  seventh  of  a mile. 

The  Sphinx  shown  in  the  same  pieture  is  not  far  from  Cairo. 
This  curious  monument,  showing  a man’s  head  on  a lion’s  body,  is 
nearly  200  feet  long,  and  was  mostly  carved  from  a ledge. 


NORTHERN  AERICA  AND  THE  SAHARA  DESERT. 


91 


Crossing  the  Sahara  Desert. 


.✓An  Arab  City  near  a Water  Gap. 

The  northern  slopes  of  this  highland  receive  rams  from 
the  westerly  winds  in  winter.  These  slopes  are  fertile 
and  produce  cereals  and  fruits  like  those  of 
Southern  Europe.  The  slopes  of  the  highland 
which  face  inland  are  almost  barren,  because 
they  are  on  the  lee  side  of  the  mountains. 

Most  of  the  people  in  the  lands  on  the  north 
of  the  Sahara  desert  have  dark  or  swarthy 
skin,  but  they  belong  to  the  white  race. 

The  Algerian,  or  native  of  Algiers,  shown  in  the 
picture  on  this  page,  is  a fine  example  of  the  north 
African  people. 

Small  streams  from  the  Atlas  mountains  flow  into 
the  border  of  the  desert,  and  even  after  they  dwindle 
away,  their  ground  water  supplies  many  wells  that 
have  been  sunk  in  that  dry  region.  The  water 
from  these  wells  is  used  for  irrigating  groves  of 
date  palms,  — the  chief  food  plants  of  that  dis- 
trict.  Thousands  of  wells  have  been  sunk  along  Algerian. 
the  border  of  the  desert  south  of  the  Atlas  range. 

The  desert  of  Sahara,  though  about  as  large  as  the 
United  States,  supports  only  about  one  fortieth  as  many 
people.  Most  of  these  live  near  the  fertile  places,  or 
oases,  where  there  are  wells  or  natural  springs.  The 


rise  over  tliem,  and  small  streams  tlien  fiow  into  the  lower 
desert  lands.  During  the  winter  months  the  highest  peaks 
in  the  desert  are  capped  with  snow. 

In  the  middle  and  eastern  parts  of  the  desert,  the  surface 
consists  largely  of  stony  table-lands.  Some  of  these  are  a mile 
high.  They  are  swept  by  hot  dry  winds  wliich  blow  away  the  dust 
from  their  stony  or  gravelly  surfaces. 

Near  the  desert  mountains  and  table-lands  are  many  springs 
around  which  date  trees  grow.  Some  grain  also  is  raised  there. 

The  western  part  of  the  desert  of  Sahara  is  mainly 
a great  sandy  region  in  which  countless  dunes  form. 
Some  of  these  are  more  tban  six  liundred  feet  in 
height.  See  desert  dunes,  page  9.  Much  less  than 
half  the  great  desert  of  Sahara  is  a sandy  waste. 

Yiolent  winds,  like  the  squalls  of  our  thunder- 
storms  but  without  rain  or  clouds,  often  raise  great 
quantities  of  dust  in  the  Sahara.  These  hot  winds, 
called  the  simoon,  sometimes  darken  the  sky  witli 
dust.  Caravans  hardly  survive  the  stifling  heat  and 
dust  of  the  simoon.  The  camels  crouch  to  the  ground, 
aud  the  men  wrap  their  heads  in  their  eloaks. 
Along  the  Southern  base  of  the  Atlas  moun- 
tains, near  their  eastern  end,  is  found  a long 
depression  leading  from  the  Mediterranean 
sea  into  the  desert.  Some  parts  of  this  de- 
pression hold  shallow  lakes,  as  shown  on  the 
relief  map.  At  one  time  it  was  thought  that  a 
large  area  in  the  desert  could  be  flooded  through 
the  long  depression,  but  more  careful  study  has 
shown  that  only  a very  small  area  is  below  the 
level  of  the  sea,  while  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
desert  is  a plateau  region. 

The  Sahara  is  the  largest  desert  on  the  earth.  This  desolate 
region  is  too  far  south  to  receive  rains  from  the  westerly  winds, 


89.  Northern  Africa  and  the  Sahara  Desert. 


The  highland  which  includes  the  Atlas  mountains  con- 
sists of  long  and  narrow  plateaus  with  border  ranges. 
These  plateaus,  like  other  high  plains  between  ranges, 
receive  but  little  rainfall  and 
are  suitable  only  for 
pasture  land. 


desert  tribes  are  mostly  wandering  Arabs,  or  Bedouins, 
and  Berbers.  Although  their  skin  is  swarthy  they  belong 
to  the  white  race.  See  picture  of  Bedouin  on  next  page. 
Many  Negroes  also  live  in  some  portions  of  the  great 
desert  lying  northward  from  Lake  Chad. 

A few  low  mountain 
ranges  rise  in 
the  des- 
ert. Rain 
occasion- 
ally  falls 
on  these 
ranges  as 
the  winds 


92 


SUDAN. 


and  too  far  north  to  be  reached  by  tbe  equatorial  rain  belt.  Even 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  desert,  there  is  no  rain.  The  drying 
trade  winds  blow  there  almost  all  the  year  round.  The  winds  are 
active  in  the  daytime,  but  they  generally  fail  after  sunset. 

Although  hot  in  summer,  the  desert  air,  especially  at  night,  is  cool 

when  the  sun  is  far  south. 

The  Sahara  desert  is 


Rugged  Land  in  the 
Sahara. 


Bedouln  Camp  in  the  Sahara  Desert. 

part  of  a great  belt  of  arid  regions  whose  rainfall  is  so 
light  that  they  have  no  overflow  to  the  sea.  The  desert 
belt  crosses  Arabia,  Iran,  the  Middle  Basin  and  the  Gobi 
region.  A wide  branch  of  this  barren  belt  spreads 
northward  around  the  Aral  and  Caspian  seas. 

We  have  studied  about  the  great  mountain  barrier 
of  the  Himalayas.  The  Sahara  also  forms  a barrier 
between  northern  and  Southern  Africa.  No  cattle, 
horses  nor  sheep  are  native  to  the  lands  south  of  the 
vast  barren  region,  but  many  of  these  animals  have  now 
been  taken  there.  On  the  other  hand,  middle  and  South- 
ern Africa  have  many  kinds  of  animals  that  are  not 
found  north  of  the  desert.  See  page  116. 

We  have  read  that  the  Himalayas  rise  between 
the  yellow  and  the  white  races.  The  Sahara  lies 
between  the  hornes  of  the  white  and  the  black 
races,  although  large  numbers  of  the  white  and 
the  black  people  have  now  mingled  in  the  border 
lands  of  the  desert  and  in  the  desert  itself. 


90.  Sudan. 


A wide  belt  of  country  south  of  the 
Sahara  desert  is  known  as  Sudan.  It  ex- 
tends  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  highland  of  Abyssinia. 

What  gulf  is  south  of  western  Sudan  ? What  large  river  from 
Sudan  flows  into  this  gulf  ? 


Bedouin. 


What  lake  receives  the  drainage  of  the  interior  region  between 
the  Niger  and  the  Nile  basins  ? 

Sudan  is  wholly  north  of  the  equator  but  is  within  the 
range  of  the  equatorial  rains.  They  are  heaviest,  how- 
ever,  in  the  Southern  part,  and  decrease  towards  the  bor- 
der of  the  Sahara  desert.  Southern  Sudan  therefore  is 

heavily  forested,  but  northward 
the  trees  give  place  to  open 
grassy  plains  which  merge  into 
the  desert.  The  greater  part  of 
the  country  is  fertile. 

Eastern  Sudan  is  in  the  Nile 
basin.  See  lesson  88. 

The  greater  part  of  central 
Sudan  is  in  the  basin  of  Lake 
Chad,  — the  largest  basin  of  in- 
terior drainage  in  Africa. 

The  main  stream  which  feeds  Lake 
Chad  flows  from  the  rainy  forest  coun- 
try far  in  the  southeast.  Very  little 
is  known  about  the  region  in  which 
the  stream  rises. 

Lake  Chad  is  shallow  and  its  banks 
are  low.  As  the  season  clianges  from 
wet  to  dry,  the  lake  varies  greatly  in 
size.  In  the  rainy  summer  season,  it 
becomes  larger  than  Lake  Superior  and  then  during  the  dry  winter 
months  shrinks  to  about  one  fourth  its  size.  As  the  lake  becomes 
smaller,  its  borders  form  swamps  or  marshes  covering  many 
tliousand  square  miles. 

When  Lake  Chad  is  swollen  by  rains,  it  overflows  towards  the 
northeast.  The  overflow  follows  a wady,  or  river  channel  that  is 
dry  except  in  the  wet  season.  The  wady  from  Lake  Chad  leads 
into  the  desert,  where  the  water  evaporates  or  disappears  in  the 
sand.  This  overflow  keeps  the  water  of  the  lake  almost  fresh. 

There  are  many  large  towns  and  villages 
in  the  park-like  district  south  of  Lake  Chad, 
and  the  region  is  thickly  settled.  Most  of  the 
people  are  Negroes. 

These  people  are  well  advanced  in  many  respeets 
beyond  the  savage  state,  for  they  carry  on  an  extensive 
trade  and  have  some  manufactures. 

The  towns  near  Lake  Chad  are  trade  centers 
where  caravans  meet.  The  ivory  tusks  of  ele- 
phants  form  a leading  article  of  export.  Camels 
and  horses  in  large  numbers  are  reared  for  mar- 
ket.  Grain  and  cotton  are  important  products. 

The  so-called  Kong  mountains  are  chiefly  the  Southern 
border  of  a much-worn  plateau  that  rises  in  broad  terraces 
froin  the  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Guinea  and  spreads  far 
northward.  The  inland  slope  of  this  old  plateau  is  in 
the  basin  of  the  Niger  river. 

The  Niger  basin  is  thought  to  be  about  three  fourths  as 
large  as  that  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Niger  river  rises 
in  the  hilly  district  near  the  Southwest  end  of  the  old 
After  making  a great  bend  northward, 


plateau  region. 


THE  KONGO  BASIN. 


93 


basin  is  thought  to  be  the 


and  flowing 
for  several 
hundred  miles  in 
"the  Sahara  desert, 
the  river  turns  southward 
and  enters  the  sea  through 
the  largest  delta  in  Africa. 

The  greater  part  of  this  delta 
is  covered  with  forests  and 
coarse  grass.  Small  steamers 
from  the  sea  can  go  a few 
hundred  miles  up  the  Niger, 
before  their  progress  is  stopped  by  rapids ; but  the  steamers  can 
ascend  the  Benue  branch  to  a point  about  600  miles  from  the 
river  mouth.  No  other  river  in  tropical  Africa  is  navigable  for  so 
great  a distance  inland  from  the  sea. 

Timbuktu,  on  the  Niger,  was  once  an  important  center  of  the 
caravan  trade,  but  it  is  now  far  surpassed  by  towns  farther  east, 
such  as  Kuka  and  Kano  wliich  together  have  a population  of  about 
100,000.  See  Africa  in  the  Supplement.  Each  year  many  camels 
cross  the  desert,  carrying  ivory,  ostrich  feathers  and  gold  dust  from 
the  basin  of  the  Niger.  The  caravans  return  southward  with  cloth, 
trinkets  and  salt. 

The  Coastal  regions  south  and  Southwest  of  the  Niger 
basin  are  reached  by  the  equatorial  rain,  and  most  parts 
of  them  are  forested.  White  people  from  Europe  have 
many  trading  stations  along  this  coast.  The  products  are 
like  those  of  the  Niger  basin. 

The  western  portion  of  Sudan,  like  nearly  all  other 
portions,  is  thickly  settled.  Most  of  the  people  are 
Negroes,  but  many  others  belong  to  a very  dark  branch 
of  the  white  race,  known  as  Hamites. 

The  Kamerun  mountains  near  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Guinea 
consist  of  one  large  voleanic  peak  and  many  small  ones. 

91.  The  Kongo  Basin. 

The  Kongo  basin  occupies  the  greater  part  of  middle 
Africa  and  lies  west  and  Southwest  of  the  upper  Nile 
basin.  Almost  all  the  Kongo  basin  is  a plateau  with  a 
general  slope  westward.  The  average  height  of  the 
region  is  about  half  a mile  above  sea  level. 

The  Kongo  basin  is  mainly  in  the  Southern  portion  of 
the  equatorial  rain  belt  and  parts  are  heavily  wooded.  This 


second  Largest  in  the  world. 

The  Kongo,  like  the 
Nile,  rises  in  the  lake 
region  of  middle  Africa.  One  branch  of  the  Kongo  is  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Tanganyika.  Other  branches  fiow  from 
smaller  lakes  farther  south. 

In  dry  seasons  the  overflow  from  Lake  Tanganyika 
ceases,  and  the  channel  of  the  outlet  is  overgrown  with 
reeds.  The  lake  water  is  therefore  slightly  brackish. 

East  of  the  lake  region  rise  two  voleanic  peaks,  the  highest 
mountains  in  Africa.  They  are  named  Kenia  and  Kilima-Njaro. 
The  former  is  about  as  high  as  Mt.  St.  Elias.  The  summit  of 
Kilima-Njaro  is  a little  higher  than  that  of  Mt.  Logan. 

There  are  rapids  and  falls  in  the  Kongo  river  at  the  place 
where  it  cuts  its  valley  down  from  the  plateau  to  the  low  and  nar- 
row  Coastal  plain.  These  falls  prevent  vessels  going  far  inland 
from  the  sea.  Above  the  falls,  the  river  is  at  all  times  wide,  and 
during  the  rainy  seasons  it  often  spreads  for  miles  from  hank  to  bank. 

Small  steamers  have  been  carried  overland  past  the  falls  and 
now  navigate  the  upper  river.  There  they  find  an  open  water  way 
for  thousands  of  miles  along  the  trunk  stream  and  its  branches. 

The  Kongo  pours  more  water  into  the  sea  than  any  other  river 
in  Africa.  For  several  miles  out  from  the  mouth,  the  fresh  water 
of  the  great  stream  scarcely  mingles ' with  the  salt  water  of  the 
ocean.  This  large  flow  from  the  river  shows  how  heavy  the  rainfall 
in  the  Kongo  basin  must  be. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Kongo  basin  is  very  luxuriant. 
Among  the  useful  food  plants  are  the  cassava,  the  yam, 
the  plantain,  corn  and  sugar  cane.  Palm  oil  and  cotton 
are  other  important  products. 

Palm  oil  comes  from  the  seeds  of  certain  kinds  of  palm  trees. 
The  seeds  are  crushed  and  then  boiled  or  melted  down,  and  are 
thus  made  to  yield  a valuable  oil. 

The  yam  is  a large  fleshy  rootstock  resembling  the  sweet  potato. 
In  nearly  all  hot  parts  of  the  world,  yams  are  a common  article  of 
food. 

Plantains  and  bananas  are  almost  alike,  but  the  pulp  of  the 
latter  is  the  more  delicate. 

What  have  you  read  about  cassava  ? See  lesson  61. 

The  basin  of  the  Kongo  is  the  home  of  many  large  and 
fierce  animals.  Among  these  are  the  chimpanzee,  the 
crocodile  and  the  rhinoceros.  Every  year  thousands  of 
elephants  are  killed  there  for  their  tusks. 


94 


SOUTHERN  AFRICA. 


The  natives  of  the  Kongo  basin  belong  to  the  black  race. 
Their  number  runs  far  into  the  millions.  They  live  mostly 
in  small  towns  and  villages.  Many  of  the  huts  of  these 
black  people  "w  are  ^ made  of  grass,  woven 
into  mats  and 


White  people  have  established  many 
trading  stations  along  the  coast  and  on 
the  upper  Kongo  and  its  tributaries. 

These  traders  purchase  ivory,  palm  oil 
and  other  products. 

The  two  great  forested  river  basins  of  the 
torrid  zone  differ  widely  in  many  respeets.  The 
Amazon  basin  slopes  to  the  east ; the  Kongo,  to  the 
west.  The  one  is  mainly  a lowland ; the  other,  a 
plateau.  The  former  has  twenty-five  thousand  miles  of 
streams  navigable  from  the  sea ; the  latter  has  only 
ninety  miles.  The  Amazon  basin  is  sparsely  peopled  by 
scattered  tribes  of  Indians ; the  Kongo  basin  supports  tens  of 
millions  of  Negroes. 

In  what  respeets  do  these  basins  resemble  each  other? 

92.  Southern  Africa. 

In  the  Zambézi  basin  are  found  the  same  changes  from 
forest  to  grass  land  and  then  to  desert,  as  in  Sudan.  The 
forests  of  the  Zambezi  basin  are  densest  in  the  northern 
part,  wliere  the  equatorial  rains  fall  in  summer.  The 
Southern  part  of  the  basin  reaches  the  Kalahari  desert. 

The  Zambezi  is  the  largest  African  river  flowing  into 
the  Indian  ocean.  This  stream  is  thought  to  drain  an 
area  equal  to  about  two  thirds  that  of  the  Mississippi 
basin. 

Locate  the  Victoria  falls.  These  falls  mark  the  place  wliere  the 
river  leaves  the  great  inland  plateau.  At  the  falls  tlie  Zambezi 
river  is  a mile  wide.  The  water  plunges  into  a chasm  about  400  feet 
deep,  and  then  runs  out  through  a narrow  zigzag  gorge. 

The  Zambezi  has  built  a large  delta.  The  distributaries  which 
cross  it  are  generally  barred  with  sand,  but  vessels  that  can  float 
over  the  bars  may  aseend  for  about  three  hundred  miles. 

The  natives  of  the  Zambezi  basin  are  savages  of  the 
black  race.  They  raise  grain  and  have  herds  of  cattle. 

The  Kalahari  desert  is  in  the  path  of  the  trade  winds  from  over 
the  Indian  ocean,  but  tliose  winds  lose  most  of  their  moisture  on 


the  seaward  slopes  of  the  eastern  mountains.  Very  little  rain  falls 
on  the  inland  desert  plains. 

Bauds  of  small  people  called  Bushmen  live  in  the  Kalahari  desert 
wherever  there  are  tufts  of  grass  upon  which  antelopes  may  feed. 
The  Bushmen  have  no  gardens  but  live  by  hunting  the  antelopes. 
These  small  savages  belong  to  the  Negro  race. 

The  main  sources  of  the  Orange  river  system  are 
in  the  eastern  coast  ranges  of  Southern  Africa.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Orange  basin  is  very  dry. 
Even  the  main  river  is  too  sliallow  for  steamers, 
and  many  of  the  branches  flow 
only  during  the  wet  season. 
There  is  good  pasturage  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  basin, 
but  the  middle  and  western 
parts  are  little  more 
than  a desert. 

The  Southern  part  of 
Africa,  including  nearly 
all  the  region  south  of  the 
Orange  river  and  a small  area 
north  of  that  river,  is  known 
as  Cape  Colony.  It  is  crossed 
from  east  to  west  by  a 
rugged  plateau  that  forms 
the  Southern  end  of  the 
great  African  highland. 

The  seaward  slopes  of  this  plateau, 
like  those  of  the  Atlas  highland,  have 
winter  rainfall  and  summer  drouth. 
During  the  wet  months,  when  the  wes- 
terly  winds  prevail,  the  short  streams 
swell  to  torrents,  but  in  the  dry  season 
they  dwindle  away. 

! ?> *m?  Wheatand  other  kinds  of  grain 

Afy  Jjp: ' A are  raised  on  the  seaward  slopes 
Y of  Cape  Colony,  and  many  cattle, 

IV  sheep  and  ostriches  are  reared 

there.  Wool,  ostrich  feathers  and 
hides  are  valuable  exports. 

The  richest  diamond  mines  in  the  world  are  at  Kim- 
berley.  The  value  of  the  diamonds  is  greater  than  that 
of  all  the  otber  exports  of  Cape  Colony. 

The  native  people  of  this  country  belong  to  the  Negro 
race,  but  white  people  from  the  British  Isles  control  the 
land  and  form  about  one  fourth  of  the  population.  Cape 
Town  is  the  chief  port  in  Southern  Africa. 

Near  Cape  Town  rises  a huge  flat-topped  rock  called  Tulle  moun- 
tain.  Southward  from  this  rocky  mass  extends  a small  peninsula 
ending  in  the  well-known  cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Madagascar,  the  largest  island  off  the  coast  of  Africa, 
is  about  two  and  one  half  times  as  large  as  Great  Britain. 
Its  Coastal  region  is  mostly  low  and  unhealthful,  but  the 
interior  consists  largely  of  grassy  or  wooded  plateaus. 

The  leading  exports  are  hides  and  India  rubber. 


AUSTRALIA. 


05 


93.  Australia.1 

Australia,  the  smallest  of  the  continents,  is  about  equal 
in  area  to  the  United  States,  not  including  Alaska. 

This  small  continent  consists  mainly  of  a half-circle  of 
low  plateaus  and  ranges,  around  a wide  central  desert 
plain.  Except  in  the  southeast,  the 
little  more  than  liills.  The  Australian 
are  about  equal  in  height  to  the 
ranges  of  the  Appalachian  high- 
land. 

The  Pacific  slope  of  Aus- 
tralia is  in  the  path  of  the 
trade  winds.  The  seaward 
slopes  of  the  Australian 
Alps  and  the  Blue  moun- 
tains2  are  therefore  well 
watered.  After  Crossing 
the  mountains,  these 
winds  can  give  very 
little  moisture  to  the 
basin  of  the  Murray 
river.  The  streams  of 
this  basin  are  fed  chiefly 
by  rains  in  the  high- 
land  on  the  southeast. 


In  what  season  do  the 
equatorial  rains  reach  north- 
ern  Australia  ? See  maps 
on  page  What  winds 

carry  rains  to  the  Southern 
coast  ? What  other  conti- 
nents receive  rains  from  the 
same  belt  of  winds  ? 

When  the  equatorial 
rains  of  the  Southern  summer 
occur  in  the  campos  of  Brazil 
and  in  the  Kongo  basin,  they  reach  the 
northern  part  of  Australia  also.  In  that 
season  the  drying  southerly  winds,  mov- 
ing  towards  the  heat  equator,  pass  over 
the  plain  of  middle  Australia.  During 
the  Southern  winter,  the  winds  blow  out- 
ward  from  this  continent  and  therefore  yield 
little  rain.  Tlius  the  middle  plain  is  almost  rainless. 

The  basin  of  the  Murray  river  is  thought  to  be  about 
one  third  as  large  as  that  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Mur- 
ray river  and  its  branches  form  the  only  large  river  system 
in  Australia,  and  yet  even  the  main  stream  of  this  system 
is  not  deep  enough  to  float  large  sea-gomg  vessels. 
After  heavy  rainfall  in  the  mountains,  small  vessels  can 

1 The  Map  Studies  on  page  97  are  to  precede  this  lesson. 

3 The  Katoomba  falls  are  in  the  Blue  mountains. 


ascend  the  Murray  and  some  of  its  branches ; but  in  sea- 
sons  of  drouth  the  rivers  become  too  shallow  for  ship- 
ping, and  some  of  them  are  little  more  than  chains  of 
ponds  or  shallow  pools. 

Inland  Australia  has  a number  of  large  lakes  with  no 
outlet  to  the  sea.  These  lakes  are  fed 
by  long  shallow  streams  from  the 
border  ranges.  During  the  dry 
seasons,  many  of  the  lakes 
dwindle  away  to  salt  marshes. 

Most  of  the  Australian  trees 
are  evergreens.  Some  of  them 
shed  their  bark  instead  of  bheir 
leaves,  and  many  turn  the 
edges  of  their  leaves  to  the  sun. 

The  giant  eucalyptus  trees  are  of 
this  kind.  They  grow  to  a great 
height.  Several  species  of  Australian 
eucalyptus  trees  are  now  common  in 
California. 

The  largest  forests  in 
Australia  are  in  the  eastern 
highland  region,  where 
the  rainfall  is  heaviest. 
Wide  areas  of  the  in- 
land plain  are 
covered  with  coarse 
scrubby  bushes. 

The  wild  animals  of 
this  continent  differ 
widely  from  those  in 
the  other  continents. 
None  of  the  kinds  of 
large  animals  in  the 
other  continents  which 
we  have  studied  are 
native  to  Australia. 

Just  east  of  Java  are  two 
small  islands  named  Bali  and 
Lombok.  They  are  separated 
by  a narrow  strait  that  forms 
part  of  a deep-water  line  known 
ag  jpaifacgfg  line . It  runs  northeast  past 
Celebes  and  divides  the  islands  of  the  East  Indies  into  two  groups 
whose  anirfials  differ  widely.  Those  on  the  side  of  the  line  nearest 
Asia  resemble  the  animals  of  that  continent,  while  those  on  the 
other  side  of  the  line  resemble  the  animals  of  Australia.  For  this 
reason,  it  is  believed  that  some  of  the  islands  were  at  one  time 
joined  to  Asia,  and  the  others  to  Australia.  This  is  the  line  of 
deep  water  referred  to  on  page  73.  See  map  on  page  111. 

Australia  has  many  animals  with  pouches,  or  folds  of  skin,  on 
the  under  sides  of  their  bodies.  Some  animals  carry  their  eggs  in 
these  pouches.  Others  carry  their  helpless  young,  till  they  are 
strong  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves. 


NEW  ZEALAND. 


97 


95.  New  Zealand,  Papua  and  Other  Islands. 

A littje  more  than  a thousand  miles  southeast  of  Aus- 
tralia lie  two  large  islands  and  several  small  ones,  form- 
ing the  group  known  as  New  Zealand. 

The  mountains  of  Southern  New  Zealand,  rivaling  in 
lieight  the  Rocky  mountains,  receive  heavy  rainfall  from 
the  westerly  winds.  Great  glaciers  descend  the  slopes  of 
the  New  Zealand  mountains.  J/y, 

Many  parts  of  these  islands  Æ 
are  forest-clad.  ,,  \|||a;  JÆB 

Among  the  trees  ' 'slk  «É|R 
are  lofty  pines  and  'SSjlHHpiS  /Jjéø? 

large  tree-ferns. 

The  natives 

of  New  Zea-  ^ .AW,  „ ' 

_ 

land  belong  ^ 

to  the  brown 

race.  Their  ' 

nu  mb  er  is 

small  com- 

par  ed  with 

that  of  the  ^ v 

white  people  • 


GILBERT  IS. 


EQUATOR 


NEWm 

CALEDONIA 


rROPIC  OF  CAPRICORN 


NEW  ZEALAND 


AUSTRALIA 


KEVTO  RELIEF  MAP 


EALAND 


SC.LE  OF  MILES 


The  kangaroo  is  the  best  known  of  the  pouched  animals.  It 
often  grows  to  the  size  of  a man.  This  animal  has  very  strong 
hind  legs  and  moves  swiftly  by  leaping.  Kangaroo  skin  is  tanned 
and  thus  made  into  leather.  This  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
shoes,  satchels  and  other  articles. 

Lesson  117  describes  some  of  the  other  curious  animals  of 

å Australia. 

The  natives  of  Australia  belong 
to  the  black  race.  They  are  savages 
and  live  wretched  lives.  The  total 
number  in  all  the  tribes  is  only 
about  thirty  thousand. 

The  fertile  portions  of  the 
| continent  are  inhabited  by 

K white  people,  mostly  from  the 

British  Isles.  The  white  men 
, f,  have  driven  the  savages  from 

these  fertile  lands.  The  pop- 
ulation  of  Australia  is  only 
about  one  twentieth  as  great 
as  that  of  our 

own  country.  Æå 

Samoan  Princess.  Neither  sheep, 

cattle,  wheat  nor  corn  are  native  to  Aus-  ’j§ 

tralia,  yet  they  now  form  the  chief  sources 

of  wealth  there.  The  continent  is  famous 

for  its  gold  mines,  — mostly  situated  in  wl&wb 

the  hilly  belt  along  the  Pacific  margin.  HaTv^ 


who  have  in  recent 
1 . il years  chosen  those  is- 
f kmmwfm,  ^an^s  f°r  their  home. 

1 Sheep-raising  is  the 
chief  industry  in  New 
Zealand,  although  there  were  no  sheep  on  the  islands 
when  the  white  men  first  settled  there. 

Papua.  The  island  of  Papua  is  about  three 
fea  and  one  half  times  as  large  as  Great  Britain. 

Except  along  some  parts  of  the  coast,  Papua 


>ral  and  Volcanic  islands.  Cocoanuts, 
breadfruit,  fisli  and  turtles  are  almost  the 
only  food  of  the  natives  on  most  of 
the  small  Pacific  islands. 

Many  of  the  low  islands  in  the  Pacific 
are  of  coral  origin.  Some  are  in  the 
form  of  long  bars,  or  reefs;  others  take 
the  shape  of  rings,  or  atolls,  inclosing 
lagoons. 

The  higher  islands  far  out  in  the 
Pacific  are  volcanoes.  Many  of  these 


94.  Map  Studies. 

Describe  Australia,  — its  size,  its  place  among 
the  oceans,  its  direction  from  the  other  conti- 
nents,  its  position  in  the  heat  and  wind  beits,  its 
highlands  and  lowlands,  its  rivers,  its  coastline. 

In  what  respect  is  Australia  like  Afriea  ? In 
what  respect  does  Australia  differ  from  North 
America?  Locate  Papua;  Tasmania;  New  Zea- 
land; the  Fiji  and  Samoa  islands. 


Fiji  Warrlor, 


98 


PACIFIC  ISLANDS. 


these  are  of  fair 
size.  The  most 
important  is  Viti- 
Levu.  These  is- 
lands  are  chiefly 
of  volcanie  origin. 
They  are  rugged 
and  mountainous. 

Before  white 
men  settled  on 
some  of  the  islands, 
the  Fijians  were 
eannibals,  as  were 
also  many  other 
of  Pacific, 


4%rrtf#ri  'iiiifci-iMfcfimt 


groups 

Sea,”  islanders.  The  custom  " WfrfTyjT 
of  eating  human  flesh  has  not 
wliolly  disappeared  from  all 
the  islands. 

The  Fijians  have  strong  and  „:sS^^9 

well-built  bodies,  as  sliown  in 
the  picture  on  page  97.  As  a 

race,  they  are  fierce  and  warlike.  Isf' m.'  u n, 

Southeast  of  the  Fiji  group  are  the  Friendly  islands,  of 
which  Tonga  is  the  largest.  Since  white  people  first  went  to 


The  Hawaiian  islands  are 
near  the  tropic  of  Cancer  abont 
2000  miles  southwestward 
from  San  Francisco.  These 
islands  were  built  up  by  vol- 
canic  action,  from  the  deep 
bottom  of  the  middle  Pacific,  i 
They  form  the  most  impor-  I 
tant  group  among  the  many  It 
islands  which 


TREE  HOUSE 
PAPUA 


far  out 

in  that  ocean. 

The  natives  of  the  Ha-  NL  ^ST  t Wd 

waiian  islands  belong  to  the 
brown  race.  Many  people  of  the 
white  and  the  yellow  races  also  have 
settled  there.  The  white  people  have  lately  taken  charge 
of  the  affairs  of  the  islands,  overthrowing  the  power  of 
the  native  queen. 

The  lowlands  of  the  islands  are  fertile.  Among  the 
products  are  sugar  cane  and  rice.  Nearly  all  the  Hawaiian 
foreign  trade  is  with  the  United  States.  In  exchange  for 
sugar,  our  country  sends  provisions  and  clothing. 

Hawaii  is  the  largest  of  the  group  of  eight  islands. 
Honolulu,  the  chief  city,  is  on  the  island  of  Oahu.  This 
city  is  reached  by  steamships  from  San  Francisco. 

The  Kilauea  erater,  in  the  Hawaiian  islands,  is  not  very  high, 
but  it  is  the  largest  active  erater  known.  The  floor  of  this  erater 


— Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands. 

- mostly  of  volcanie  origin;  but 

the  Caroline,  Marshall  and  Gil- 
pk  bert  islands  are  chiefly  the  work  of  coral  polyps. 
" ” The  savages  who  dwell  in  these  islands  may 
be  grouped  with  the  people  of  the  brown  race  ; 
but  in  language  and  customs,  the  Micronesians  differ 


are  still  active,  but  others  are  extinct.  Coral  reefs,  called 
barrier  reefs,  surround  most  of  the  lofty  islands. 

There  are  about  300  islands  in  the  Fiji  group,  but  only  two  of 


They  earry  provisions,  but  depend  on  rain  for  drink.  Perhaps 
the  lonely  islands  far  out  in  the  Pacific  were  in  many  instances 
first  peopled  by  castaways  who  wliile  out  in  their  boats  were 
driven  from  their  hornes  by  winds  and  ocean  eurrents. 


from  the  natives  of  the  large  islands  of  the  East  Indies. 

The  natives  of  the  Marshall  islands  are  very  skillful  in  såiling 
canoes.  These  islanders  often  take  voyages  lasting  several  months. 


is  a lake  of  hot  lava  which  at  times  rises  above  the  rim  and  runs 
off  in  great  streams.  The  Mauna  Loa  erater,  near  that  of  Kilauea, 
pours  forth  more  lava  than  any  other  volcano  yet  found. 


99 


RACES  OF  MEN. 


96.  Homes  of  the  Races. 

We  have  seen  that  the  people  in  various  parts  of  the  earth  do 
not  all  look  alike,  do  not  eat  the  same  kinds  of  food,  do  not  wear 
the  same  style  of  clothing,  nor  live  in  the  same  kinds  of  houses. 

Near  the  Kongo  river  there  are  black  savages  living  in  straw 
huts,  with  no  books,  no  lamps,  no  rifles. 


The  people  of  the  earth  are  divided  into  five  groups,  or 
races.  The  people  of  one  race  differ  from  those  of  the 
other  races  in  color,  in  size,  in  the  shapes  of  their  skulls, 
in  kinds  of  hair,  in  language,  and  in  other  respects. 

In  some  places  we  shall  find  that  people  of  two  or  more 
races  live  side  by  side,  but  certain  lands  are  known  as 


The  Indians  in  the  selvas  spend  their  time  in  fishing  and 
hunting.  They  wear  but  little  clothing  and  use  blowguns  and 
bows  and  arrows. 

On  the  islands  southeast  of  Asia,  brown  people  live  in  bamboo 
huts,  and  raise  rice,  coffee  and  spices.  There  the  boys  make 
baskets,  and  the  girls  weave  cloth. 

We  have  read  about  the  Chinese  with  their  long  braided  hair 
and  their  slanting  eyes.  We  have  learned  that  they  weave  fine 
silk  and  pack  boxes  of  tea. 

We  know  that  white  people  live  in  our  own  country  and  in 
many  other  countries.  We  have  seen  their  books,  railroads,  ships, 
workshops  and  homes,  or  pictures  of  them. 


the  home  of  each  race.  Thus,  America  is  the 
home  of  the  Indian,  or  red-brown  race.  Most 
of  the  brown  people  are  foitnd  on  islands  south- 
east of  Asia.  The  north  and  east  slopes  from  the 
Asian  highland  are  the  home  of  the  yellow  race. 

The  home  of  each  race  is  bounded  on  nearly  all  sides 
by  oceans,  deserts  or  lofty  highlands.  The  desert  of 
Sahara  lies  between  lands  of  the  black  and  the  white 
races.  The  Himalaya  mountains  separate  homes  of 
yellow  and  of  white  people.  The  land  of  the  Indian  is 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  the  sea. 

No  race  is  now  limited  to  its  original  home,  for  the 
people  of  each  race  have  spread  more  'or  less  into  the 
lands  of  other  races.  Thus,  white  people  are  now  found 
in  nearly  all  settled  parts  of  the  earth. 

There  are  about  1,500,000,000  people  in  the  world. 


100 


THE  NEGRO  OR  BLACK  RACE. 


97.  The  Negro  or  Black  Race. 

In  what  part  of  Africa  do  people  of  the  black  race  live?  See 
map  on  page  102.  What  large  river  basins  are  in  this  region  ? What 
desert  is  on  the  north?  What  oceans  are  on  the  east  and  west? 


The  black  natives  of  Australia  are  classed  vvitli  the  Negro 
race.  Their  color  is  dusky  brown,  and  tlieir  hair  is  curly. 

The  number  of  Australians  is  small,  compared  with  the  nuinber 
of  white  people  who  now  live  in  that  continent.  Tliere  are  only 


The  natives  of  middle  and  Southern 
Africa  vary  in  color  from  black  to 
brown.  Most  of  them  have  broad  flat 
noses,  thick  lips  and  black  frizzly  hair. 

The  true  Negroes  are  found  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  Sudan,  but  the  people  in 
the  tribes  southward  from  Sudan  to 
the  cape  of  Good  Hope  also  belong 
to  the  Negro  race.  4 


Australians. 


Negro  Children  at  tlie  Paris  Exposition. 

Most  of  the  tribes  living  south  of 
Sudan  form  a large  branch  of  the 
black  race,  known  as  the  Bantu 
people.  Their  language  does  not 
resemble  that  of  the  Negroes  of 
Sudan,  but  no  other  marked  differ- 
ence  has  yet  been  discovered. 

The  Kaffirs  of  Southern  Africa  belong  to  the  Bantu 
branch  of  the  Negro  race.  One  of  the  pictures  on  this 
page  shows  a common  form  of  Kaffir  hut. 

The  Negroes  in  some  parts  of  Africa  build  houses, 
weave  coarse  cloth,  and  make  spears,  bows  and  shields. 

Many  of  the  black  people  raise  cattle,  and  plant  grain. 

If  the  long  rivers  of  Africa  were  open  to  ships  from  the 
sea,  the  savages  might  more  easily  learn  how  the  white 
man  dresses,  prepares  food,  tills  the  soil,  uses  books, 
and  defends  himself. 

Millions  of  black  people  have  been  taken  from  their 
hornes  in  Africa  and  sold  as  slaves,  but  the  slave  trade  has 
now  been  almost  stopped.  The  climate  of  their  native 
land  fitted  the  Negroes  to  work  in  the  low  and  hot  regions 
of  the  earth.  Many  of  the  people  of  Brazil,  the  West 
Indies  and  the  Southern  plains  of  our  own  country  are 
free  descendants  of  African  slaves. 


about  thirty  thousand  in  all  the  tribes.  These  are  thinly  scattered 
around  the  continent,  chiefly  within  about  two  hundred  miles  of  the 
coast.  The  Australians  are  savages  of  very  low  grade.  They  wear 
but  little  clothing,  and  tattoo  the  skin. 

One  of  the  native  weapons  is  the  boomerang.  This  is  a curved 
stick  which  may  be  thrown  in  such  a way  that  it  will  return  to  the 
thrower.  Wooden  spears  and  stone  hatchets  also  are  used. 

The  savages  of  Papua,  or 
New  Guinea,  belong  to  the 
black  race. 

We  know  very  little  about  the 
Papuans.  They  paint  their 
bodies  and  go  about  almost  naked. 

The  tribes  of  the  inner 
part  of  the  island  are 
said  to  be  very  fierce. 


Kaffir  Huts. 


Kaffir  Boy. 


Sudanese  Woman. 


Kaffir  Girl 


The  number  of  people 
in  the  black  race  is 
about  150,000,000, — one 
tenth  of  the  people  on 
the  earth. 


THE  AMERICAN  OR  RED  RACE. 


101 


98.  The  American  or  Red  Race. 


BRUIE. 

Indian  Typo3. 


in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
country,  where  game  was 
abundant  and  where  corn 
could  easily  be  raised.  The 
women  planted  gardens  of 
corn,  and  the  men  spent 
their  time  hunting  deer, 
bison  and  other  animals. 

The  Indian  taught  the 

early  white  settler  how  to  indian  camp. 

make  soft  shoes  of  deer- 

skin,  and  canoes  of  birch  bark.  From  the  savage  the 
white  man  learned  also  how  to  make  Indian  corn  grow  in  a forest. 
Eings  of  bark  were  cut  from  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  or  the  bark 
was  bivrned  off,  so  tliat  the  sap  could  not  flow.  The  trees  soon 
died,  and  the  corn  could  then  ripen  in  the  hot  sunshine. 

It  is  thought  that  about  250,000  Indians  lived  in  this  country 
when  the  first  white  settlers  came  to  its  shores.  The  number  now 
remains  about  the  same,  with  perhaps  a slight  increase. 


Nearly  all  the  Indians  in  the  United  States  are  now 
upon  reservations.  These  are  large  tracts  of  land  set 
apart  as  hornes  for  the  tribes.  Only  a few  small  tribes 
dwell  east  of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  most  thrifty 


tribes  are  now  living  in  the  Indian  Territory.  See  col- 
ored  map  of  the  United  States. 

About  one  third  of  the  Indians  in  our  country  live  in  good 
houses  of  wood  or  of  brick.  They  own  large  herds  of  cattle,  and 
raise  grain  and  fruit.  In  some  places  they  have  good  schools. 

Some  tribes  still  live  in  tents.  Others  build  pueblos, — houses 
or  villages  made  of  sun-dried  bricks  or  of  stone. 

The  native  weapons  are  the  bow  and  arrow  and  the  tomahawk, 
or  hatchet.  The  Indians  shoot  the  arrow  and  throw  the  tomahawk 
with  great  skill.  Many  are  now  skillful  with  rifles. 

The  Indians  had  no  horses  before  the  Europeans  came  to  America, 
but  most  of  the  savages  are  now  excellent  riders. 


Millions  of  Indians  live  in  Mexico,  Central  America 
and  South  America.  Some  of  these  are  still  savages,  but 
many  have  mingled  with  people  of  the  white  race 
and  have  given  up  most  of  their  savage  customs. 

In  Mexico  alone  there  are  nearly  5,000,000  Indians,  while 
as  many  more  people  in  that  country  are  part  Indian  and  part 
white.  Not  one  fifth  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mexico  are  pure 
white. 

In  all  the  countries  of  South  America  the  races  are  greatly 
mixed.  Most  of  the  white  people  live  near  the  coasts,  but 
there,  as  well  as  farther  inland,  are  found  several  million 
Indians  and  thousands  of  Negroes.  The  latter  are  mostly 
descendants  of  freed  slaves. 

The  Indians  of  the  interior  of  South  America  are  savages  of 
low  grade  and  will  doubtless  remain  so  until  that  region  is 

settled  by  white  people.  The 
Indians  of  the  selvas  are  scat- 
tered  in  many  small  tribes. 

When  the  first  white  settlers 
came  to  America,  the  Indians  of 
Peru  and  Mexico  had  temples 
and  other  buildings  of  stone. 
They  made  cloth  and  worked  in 
copper  and  gold,  but  the  use  of  iron 
was  not  known  to  them.  They 
built  good  roads  and  bridges. 


A Pueblo. 


The  American  or  red  race  includes  only  about  one 
twelfth  as  many  people  as  tlie  black  race.  Most  of  the 
Indians  live  in  the  torrid  zone. 


This  group  is  made  up  of  Indians, — the  native  tribes 
of  America. 

Most  of  the  Indians  have  high  cheek-bones  and  straight 

O o 

black  hair.  Their  skin  is  reddisli-brown  or  copper  color. 


These  people  had  made  more 
progress  tlian  any  others  in  the 
red  race. 


A Zunl  Water  Carrier. 


The  Indians 
streaks  of  bright 
America  called 
white  men  pale- 


often  paint  their  faces  and  bodies  in 
red,  and  the  early  white  settlers  in  North 
them  red  men.  The  Indians  called  the 
faces. 

At  one  time  the  red-brown  savages 
roamed  over  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
United  States,  but  most  of  them  were 


102 


THE  MALAY  OR  BROWN  RACE. 


99.  The  Malay  or  Brown  Race. 

In  what  part  of  the  world  is  the  brown  race  found?  Name  three  large  islands  peopled  by 
tliis  race.  What  are  some  of  the  products  of  tliese  islands? 

What  great  island  east  of  Africa  is  settled  in  part  by  people  of  the  brown  race  ? 

The  people  of  the  brown  race  have  coarse  black  hair,  flat  faces  and  short  skulls. 
Many  of  them  have  strong  and  well-built  bodies. 

The  brown  people  live  mostly  on  islands,  but  their  home  inclndes  also  the 
Malay  peninsnla.  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Madagascar  and  Java  are  the  most  important 
islands  peopled  by  the  brown  race,  but  the  region  includes  countless  islands  that 
extend  for  thousands  of  miles  out  into  the  Pacific. 


Fiji  Islanders. 


Pi]l  Hut. 


Malay  Hut. 


Many  people  of  the  Malay  race  are  yet  savages.  Others  are  traders  or  sailors.  Many 
thousand  people  of  this  race  inhabit  the  northern  part  of  New  Zealand.  These  are  known  as 
Maoris.  They  are  bra  ve  and  warlike,  and  have  fought  hard  to  prevent  the  white  man  from 
seizing  their  island  home,  but  they  have  lost  the  largest  and  best  parts  of  their  islands. 

The  brown  people  raise  a very  large  portion  of  the  spices  used 
in  the  whole  world. 


The  brown  or  Malay  race  includes  only  about  one 

fourth  as  many  people  as  the 
black  race. 


Mao  of  tbe  Racea. 


li  Reference  Tables. 

Note : The  statistics  given  below 
are  to  a very  large  extent  mere  esti- 
mates,  not  based  on  census  returns. 
These  tables  are  placed  liere  for 
reference  and  not  for  memorizing. 


Christians 400,000,000 

Buddhists 500,000,000 

Mohammedans 200,000,000 

Brahmans 150,000,000 

Jews 8,000,000 

Pagans  and  others 242,000,000 


1,500,000,000 

090.000. 000 
000,000,000 

150.000. 000 

35.000. 000 

12.000. 000 
13,000,000 


Total  Population  of  the  World  . 

Caueasian 

Mongolian ' . . 

Negro 

Malay 

American 


Mixed  Races 


THE  MONGOLIAN  OK  YELLOW  RACE. 


ioa 


108.  The  Mongolian  or  Yellow  Race. 

Where  is  the  home  of  the  yellow  race  ? 

Where  is  China?  Japan?  Siam?  Anam  ? Siberia?  See  map 
on  page  123. 

Wliat  great  river  basins  of  Asia  slope  to  the  Arctic  ocean  ? 


The  Japanese  and  the  Chinese  are  famous  for  the  weaving  of 
silk  and  the  making  of  porcelain.  They  have  not  yet  learned  the 
great  value  of  coal,  although  there  are  eoal  beds  in  their  countries. 
These  people  know  very  little  about  machinery  for  weaving  cloth 
or  for  making  iron  and  steel  goods.  In  the  great  empire  of  China 
there  are  only  a few  miles  of  railroad. 


Eskimo. 


What  large  rivers  of 
Asia  flow  into  border 
seas  along  the  Pacific 
coast  ? What  race  is 
found  in  most  parts  of 
these  basins  ? 


The  people  of  the 
yellow  and  the  brown 
races  r e se m ble  one  JaPanese  TemPle 
another.  Most  of  them  have 
coarse  black  hair,  flat  faces  and 
short  skulls. 

The  races  differ  slightly  in  color, 
in  the  slant  of  their  eyes  and  in 
some  other  respects.  The  brown 
race  is  perhaps  a branch  of  the  yel- 
low race.  The  American  Indians  Japane8e  RalDOOats 
also  resemble  somewhat  the  people  of  these  two 
groups. 

The  yellow  race  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
Asia,  on  the  north  and  east  of  the  great  central 
highland.  The  home  of  tliis  race  reaches  from  the 
Himalaya  mountains  to  the  Arctic  coast,  and  also 
includes  every  river  basin  sloping  to  the  Pacific 
coast  of  Asia. 

Several  centuries  ago,  the  Chinese  invented 
printing  and  gunpowder,  but  for  many  years  that  nation 
has  made  little  progress.  The  Japanese  have  made  more 
progress  than  any  other  people  of  the  yellow  race.  They 
have  good  schools,  and  have  been  wise  enough  to  adopt 
many  of  the  customs  of  the  leading  white  nations. 


Japanese. 


Many  tribes  of  yel- 
low people  are  found 
on  the  long  Arctic 
slope  of  Eurasia. 


Some  of  these  live 
by  fishing  and  hunting. 
Others  keep  herds  of 

japan.  reindeer.  These  useful 

animals  supply  the  people  with  food 
and  clothing. 

Many  white  people  from  Russia,  in 
Europe,  have  moved  eastward  across 
Siberia  and  now  far  outnumber  the 
yellow  people  in  that  land. 

The  Lapps  and  Finns  of  northwest 
Europe  belong  to  the  yellow  race. 

Small  trihes  of  yellow  people, 
called  K ski  mos,  live  along  the 
Arctic  shores  of  America. 


There  the  summer  is  too  short  to 
ripen  grain.  Seals,  deer,  bears,  fish, 
walruses  and  sea  fowl  supply  food, 
clothing,  heat  and  light. 

Most  of  the  Eskimos  live  in  ronnded 
huts  made  of  stones,  skins  or  drift- 
wood,  and  wear  clothing  made  of  the 
skins  of  seals,  bears  and  birds.  Hunt- 
ing parties  often  make  huts  out  of  blocks  of  snow.  In  winter  all 
the  huts  are  buried  in  snow. 


The  yellow  race  includes  more  than  one  third  of  the 
people  on  the  earth.  About  one  fourth  of  the  human 
race  is  found  in  China. 


104 


THE  CAUCASIAN  OR  WHITE  RACE. 


Kashmir  Soldier. 


Hindus. 


Aryans  are  now 
called  Hindus.  Tlieir  country  is  one  of 
the  most  thickly  settled  in  the  world. 

Other  bands  drove  their  herds  west- 

ward,  and  settled  in  the  grazing  lands  of  Persia.  See  the 
map  of  Asia.  After  many  years,  one  branch  of  these  people 
moved  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  The  tribes  of  this  branch 
have  grown  to  important  nations  in  sucli  countries  as  Greece,  Italy  and  Spain. 


Ceylon  Girl. 


101.  The  Caucasian  or  White  Race.  Many  tribes  of  Aryans  fought  their  way  across  the 

What  race  lives  in  Africa  north,  of  the  desertof  Sahara?  What  P^ins  of  Low  Kurope.  I hese  have  grown  into  the  lead- 
race  occupies  the  greater  part  of  Europe  ? ing  nations  of  the  world.  They  include  nearly  all  the 

Between  what  raees  do  the  Himalaya  mountains  rise?  people  living  on  the  north  of  the 

Where  have  white  people  settled  in  North  America?  In  South  Alpine  system,  and  most  of  the 

America ? In  Africa?  In  Australia?  white  people  in  the  United  States, 

The  home  of  the  white  race  in  tliQ^Old  World  lies  be- 
tween the  lands  of  the  black  and  the  yellow  races. 

It  reaches  from  the  desert  of  Sahara  to  the  Arctic 
shore,  and  includes  also  the  part  of  Asia  lying 
south  and  west  of  Tibet.  It  is  thought  by  many 
persons  that  ages  ago  there 
lived  in  central  Asia  a race 
of  people  now  called 
Aryans.  Large  bands  of 
these  people  roamed  about 

in  search  of  new  hornes.  ' W Canada,  Southern 

Many  of  the  Aryans,  : Africa  and  Aus- 

with  droves  of  cattle,  went  tralia.  The  people 

mto  India.  ' n JBbéM . -L; 1 ■>  • ■ - in  the  peninsula 

scotch  of  Arabia  and  in  the  countries  on  the  north  of  the 

Piper. 

Sahara  desert,  as  well  as  in  parts  of  the  desert 
itself,  are  very  dark,  but  most  of  them  belong  to  the  white  race. 
though  not  to  the  Aryan  branch.  These  are  called  Semites. 


Rinne  Women. 


Tlie  Semites  gave  us  our  alphabet  and  system  of  Arabic  figures.  The 
Jewish  people  belong  to  the  Semitic  branch,  but  they  are  now  scattered 
throughout  the  leading  countries  of  the  world. 


Many  of  the  tribes  in  the  Sahara  desert  and  along  its  eastern 
and  Southern  borders  form  a still  darker  branch  of  the  white 
race,  called  Hamites. 


The  Hamites  differ  from  the  black  race  in  having  thin  lips,  narrow  noses 
and  straight  or  curly  hair.  There  are  many  Hamites  in  Sudan.  They  have 
for  ages  mingled  with  the  Negroes  of  that  land,  and  the  races  have 
beeome  greatly  mixed. 


The  white  race  outnumbers  even  the  yellow 
race.  These  two  great  races  together  include 
all  but  about  one  seventh  of  the  people  in  the 

world.  There  are 
nearly  700,000,- 
000  people  in  the 
Caucasian  race. 


Mexicans. 


RELIGIONS  AND  GOVERNMENTS. 


105 


Jeweas. 


Egyptian 

Runner. 


Egyptian  Woman. 


pagans.  Most  of 
them  belong  to  the 
black  and  the  red 
races,  but  tliere  are  many  savages 
in  each  of  the  other  races.  About 
one  seventh  of  the  people  on  the 
earth  are  pagans. 

India  is  the  seat  of  a very  old  reli- 
gion that  divides  its  followers  into  elasses  called  castes.  The 
four  principal  castes  are  the  priests,  the  soldiers  and  rulers, 
the  mereliants,  the  servants.  Below  these  are  the  outcasts. 

Brahma  is  one  of  the  chief  gods  in  tliis  religion.  The  priests 
are  called  Brahmans,  and  all  the  believers  are  Brahmanists. 

About  one  half  of  the  people  in  India,  or  one  tenth 
of  mankind,  are  Brahmanists. 

Many  centuries  ago  a prince  in  India  taught  that  caste  had 
nothing  to  do  with  religion.  He  did  not  believe  in  a God. 
This  prince  was  called  Buddha , and  his  followers  are  Buddhists. 
The  Buddhist  religion  in  India  soon  passed  away,  but  it 
spread  over  central  and  eastern  Asia. 


103.  Governments. 

A number  of  savages  living  under  one 
ruler,  or  chief,  form  a tribe.  A chief  generally 
has  absolute  power  over  the  lives  and  prop- 
erty  of  his  subjects,  but  as  the  tribes  become 
more  civilized  the  people  secure  more  rights. 

The  tribal  government  is  the  com- 
mon  form  of  rule  among  pagans. 


Arab  Woman. 

A body  of  people 
above  the  savage 
state,  united  under 
one  ruler,  may  be 
called  a nation.  The 
land  inhabited  by  a 
nation  is  known  as  a 
country.  The  city  in 
which  the  laws  of  a 
nation  are  made  is 
the  capital  of  the 
country. 


Most  of  the  people  of  the  yellow  race,  or  about 
one  third  of  the  human  race,  are  Buddhists. 

The  Semitic  branch  of  the 
white  race  has  given  to  the 
world  the  three  religions  whose 
followers  worship  one  God. 

The  Christians  believe  in  one 
God  and  the  Bible  ; the  Jewisli 
people  believe  in  one  God  but 
not  in  the  New  Testament ; the 
Mohammedans  believe  in  one 
God,  but  their  sacred  book  is 
the  Koran. 

The  Christians  are  mostly 
descendants  of  the  Aryans  who 
settled  in  Europe.  The  Chris- 
tian lands  include  the  greater 
part  of  America,  Europe  and 


Semitic  Type  (Arab) 


Moorish  Woman. 


Among  some  nations  the  rulers  have 
absolute  power.  They  make  the  laws 
and  enforce  them,  and  also  hold  olfice 
for  life  by  right  of  birth.  A nation 
tlius  ruled  is  an  absolute  monarchy. 
The  rulers,  or  monarchs,  take  such 
names  as  czar,  shah,  sultan , ameer. 

The  Mohammedan  and  Bud- 
dhist nations,  except  Japan,  are 
absolute  monarchies. 

A government  in  which  the  ruler  holds  office  by  right  of  birth, 
but  is  limited  in  power,  is  called  a limited  monarchy.  Such 
a ruler  is  commonly  called  a king,  queen,  emperor  or  empress. 

A government  in  which  the  people  elect  their  own 
ruler  is  a republic. 


Australia,  and  the  many  European  settlements  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  world.  About  one  fourth  of  the  people  on  the 
earth  are  in  Christian  countries. 

Mohammed,  the  founder  of  the  religion  which  bears  his  name,  lived 
in  Arabia  about  a thousand  years  before  the  first  English  colony  settled 
in  America. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  has  spread  into  northern  Africa 
and  Sudan  ; also,  over  nearly  all  Southwest  Asia,  part  of  India, 
and  the  largest  of  the  islands  settled  by  the  brown  people. 
This  religion  includes  among  its  followers  about  one  seventh 
of  the  human  race. 


102.  Religions. 


People  who  worship  idols,  or  objects  such  as  the  sun,  fire, 
animals  or  images,  are  called  pagans.  As  a rule,  they  believe 

that  there  are  spirits  having 
magical  power  to  do  good  or  evil. 

Nearly  all  savages  are 


10G 


RE  VIE  W OE  THE  RACES. 


The  Christian  nations,  except  Russia,  are  eitlier  limited 
monarchies  or  republics.  Russia  and  Turkey 1 are  absolute 
monarchies.  France  and  Switzerland  are  republics.2  The 
other  nations  of  Europe  are  limited  monarchies. 

The  nations  in  Europe  have  laid  claim  to  nearly  all  parts  of 
Africa,  as  well  as  to  some  other  lands.  Great  Britain  possesses 
Canada,  Australia,  India, 

Balize,3  and  part  of  Gui- 
ana.  Greenland  and  Ice- 
land  belong  to  Denmark. 

Cuba  is  a possession  of 
Spain.  The  nations  in 
Europe  govern  several 
other  islands  off  the  coast 
of  America. 

All  the  countries  in 
America  are  republics, 
except  those  named 
above  as  possessions 
of  nations  in  Europe. 

Our  own  republic  has 
ser  ved  as  a model  for 
the  other  American 
republics.4 


104. 


Review  of  the  Races. 

Wliat  races  are  separated  by  the  Pacific 
ocean  ? By  the  Atlantic  ocean  ? By  the 
liulian  ocean?  By  the  desert  of  Sahara? 

By  the  Himalaya  mountains  ? 

1 Turkey  is  under  the  rule  of  Mahommedans,  but  most  of  the  people  in 
that  country  are  Christians.  Japan  is  now  a limited  monarchy. 

2 San  Marino  and  Andorra  are  scarcely  more  than  small  cities.  See 

pages  78  and  80.  3 A colony  in  Central  America. 

4 For  fuller  account  of  our  government,  see  lesson  124. 


Wliat  bounds  the  land  of  the  Negro  on  the  north  ? Where  are 
the  Bantu  tribes  ? The  Kafiirs? 

Where  do  the  Papuans  live  ? In  wliat  part  of  Australia  are  black 
natives  found?  In 

what  part  of  the  Mirrrjrr  . , , ^ibiilij  i 

1'inti'd  States  a iv  tlnTc  ' ■ 

many  Negroes?  i 


Where  is  the  home 
of  the  brown  race  ? 

Name  three  large 
islands  of  the  East 
Indies. 

Where  are  Indians 
found?  Eskimos? 
Lapps?  Japanese? 
Chinese  ? 

Where  is  the  home 
of  the  white  race  in  the 
Old  World?  Who 
were  the  Aryans? 
Where  are  the  Hindus 
found  ? The  Arabs  ? The  Egyptians  ? 

Tell  what  race  or  races  are  found  in  eacli  of 
these  river  basins : Amazon,  Kongo,  Mississippi, 
Nile,  Ganges,  Lena,  Niger,  La  Plata,  Mackenzie, 
St.  Lawrence,  Volga,  Yang-tse,  Amur. 

What  people  live  on  the  highest  plateau?  In 
the  largest  river  valley  ? On  the  greatest  desert  ? 
In  the  coldest  lands  ? 

What  races  live  along  the  shores  of  the  Pacific 
ocean?  Of  the  Indian  ocean? 

To  wliich  race  or  races  do  the  people  in  each 
of  these  lands  belong?  — China,  British  Isles, 
Brazil,  Arabia,  Germany,  United  States,  India, 
Greenland,  Borneo,  Russia,  Japan,  Kongo  State, 
Egypt,  Peru,  Mexico,  Sudan,  Java,  Australia. 

Pictures.  — The  “ Mosque  of  St.  Sophia  ” is  a 
Mohammedan  place  of  worship  in  Constantinople.  The 
“ Fire  Temple  ” is  supplied  with  gas  from  the  naphtha 
wells  of  Baku,  a port  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Caspian  sea.  The  “ Rock 
Temple  ” is  a fine  specimen  of  the  Ilindu  temples  in  India.  Pagodas  are 
common  in  southeast  Asia.  Paul  Revere’s  signal  lanterns  were  hung  in 
the  tower  of  the  “Old  North  Church.”  The  lowest  picture  in  the  group  is 
the  beautiful  Trinity  Church,  Boston. 


WHERE  PLANTS  GROW. 


107 


BANANA  PLANT 


T H!  ST  LE 


PLANTS. 


105 


Where  Plants  Grow 


Can  you  naine  two  plants  that  thrive  in  wet 
\*r  soil?  Two  that  thrive  in  sandy  soil ? ^,p3 

i §S**3  „ Kl  \ ' Where  do  water  lilies  grow?  Do  you  know  ,34 

: STTiJ  ■ _/cy  where  pussy  willows  are  found  ? ’ i 

> //  Of  what  use  are  long  roots  to  trees?  Would 

short  roots  be  as  useful ? Try  to  find  a plant  growing  on 
the  bark  of  some  tree.  Name  two  trees  that  drop  tlieir 
■V*/'*  / Vjfff  leaves  in  autunin.  Name  two  that  hold  tlieir  leaves  all  winter. 

M YMfvtiiL / 1 Oi  what  ways  may  seeds  be  scattered  over  level  land  ? How 

' 1 dr 0VER  may  they  be  carried  over  high  land  ? Across  rivers  ? 

; / Name  two  plants  that  yield  fibers  from  which  cloth  is  made. 

1 I Name  three  plants  that  are  used  in  making  medicine. 

What  is  tar?  What  is  India  rubber?  Name  six  food-plants.  What  articles  are 
made  from  sap ? Frombuds?  From  leaves?  From  seeds?  From  bark?  From  roots? 


106.  Soil,  Water  and  Heat. 

Plants  cannot  live  in  every  place  where  tlieir  seeds  may  fall,  but  only 
where  the  soil,  heat  and  moisture  are  suited  to  tlieir  growth. 

Meadow  grass  thrives  in  rich  moist  soil.  Thistles  often  spring  up  in  sandy  and  rocky 
places.  Water  lilies  take  root  in  mud  at  the  bottoms  of  ponds.  Mosses  eling  to  rocks 
and  trees.  Clover  seeks  warm  sunlight.  Many  ferns  grow  in  shady  woods. 

Seeds  of  swamp  plants  may  be  blown  to  dry  sandy  fields,  but  there  they  will  die. 
If  thistle  seeds  are  sown  in  a swamp  they  will  rot.  Some  kinds  of  rice  grow  in  flooded 
fields,  wliile  many  cactus  plants  thrive  in  deserts. 

Some  plants  need  a longer  hot  season  than  others  in  order  to  ripen  their 
seeds. 

Orange  blossoms  often  cover  a tree  in  early  spring  while  the  branches  are  still  loaded 
with  golden  fruit  from  the  last  year’s  blossoms.  The  apple  tree  blooms  in  the  spring- 
time,  and  its  fruit  ripens  before  winter. 

Bananas  require  hot  or  warm  weather  all  the  year,  while  in  the  far  north,  where  snow 
covers  the  ground  except  for  a few  weeks  in  summer,  millions  of  poppies  find  time  to 
spring  up,  blossom,  and  ripen  their  seed. 

A plant  is  not  found  in  all  places  where  the  soil,  heat  and  moisture  are 
suited  to  its  growth.  If  the  plant  is  not  native  to  the  place,  its  seeds  or 
the  plant  itself  must  first  be  taken  there. 


CACTUS 


CENTURY  BLANT 


When  white  people  first  settled  in  America  they  found  here  no  wheat  nor  cotton.  After  a time  the  seeds  were  brought  across  the 
ocean,  and  now  these  plants  are  among  the  most  valuable  in  the  New  World.  Most  of  our  grains  and  fruits  are  natives  of  other  lands. 


108 


PLANTS  OF  THE  HOT  BELT. 


107.  Plants  of  the  Hot  Belt. 

What  lands  are  included  in  this  belt?  See  map  on page  18. 
Wliat  are  the  seasons  in  this  belt  ? Wlien  do  the  rainy  seasons 
come  ? See  page  24- 


Among  the  chief  articles  of  food  of  people  in  the  hot 
belt  are  bananas,  plantains  and  breadfruit.  Bananas  and 
plantains  are  very  much  alike,  — the  latter  being  sliglitly 
the  coarser. 


POPPY 


The  natives  use 
the  nuts  for  food, 
^x^and  make  dishes  out 
of  the  hard  shells. 
y ’ The  cocoa  palm  thrives 
' best  near  the  sea. 

Some  palm  trees  pro- 
duce  dates.  These  are 
the  chief  article 
of  food  of  many 
desert  tribes.  Other 
palms  yield  wax,  oil, 
sago  and  wine. 

India  rubber  is  made 
^ from  the  sap  of  many 
® kinds  of  trees  and  vines 
that  grow  in 
the  hot  belt. 
Many  dye-woods 
WsL W k.  are  also 


belt  are  very  y ! JaÉw 

...  1 *■  ,"V 

rich  in  spices. 

Tliere  are  found  \\  v 

the  sweet-scented  ' wl  | jj 

kernels  of  nutmeg,  Ji 

the  biting  ilower  buds 

of  the  clove,  the  fra-  ÆM 

grant  bark  of  the  cin-  fj| 

namon,  the  hot  root- 

stock  of  the  ginger,  and  the 

stinging  dried  berries  of  the 

pepper.  | 

This  belt  supplies  tliej 

world  witli  coifee.  Among 

the  other  chief  pro- 

ducts  are  cotton, 

sugar  cane,  rice  i 

and  the  opium 

p°ppy.  m'  mg 


N DIA  RUBBER 

yr  L 


VICTORIA  REGI  A 


gum  araeUc 


The  torrid  belt  is  often  called  the  belt  of  palms,  because 
so  many  palm  trees  thrive  in 
it.  Among  these  is  the  use- 
ful  cocoa  palm. 

From  the  wood  of  its  trunk 
many  useful  articles 
are  made.  The  fi 
bers  of  the  leaves 
are  woven  into 
ropes,  cloth, 
mats 
baskets. 


Breadfruit  grows  to  about  the  size  of  a child’s  head.  The  fruit 
is  often  baked,  and  sometimes  it  is 
ground  to  flour  after  being  baked.  On 
many  islands  in  the  Pacific 
bananas  and  breadfruit  are 
almost  tl  10  only  food 
of  the  natives. 

The  East  In- 
dies  and  many 
other  parts 
\ of  the  hot 
v 

$ 

EppJ 


and 


found 
there. 

Among 
the  trees 
of  the  hot 
belt  yielding 
valuable  wood 
are  ebony,  rose- 
wood  and  ma- 
hogany. 

Another  useful  product  of 
the  hot  belt  is  bamboo.  This 
is  a very  strong  coarse  grass-like 
plant,  growing  to  the  lieight  of  sixty  or  seventy  feet. 

In  India,  China  and  the  East  Indies  entire  huts  witli  their  fur- 
niture  are  made  of  bamboo.  Its  seeds  and  tender  shoots  are  served 
as  food,  on  dishes  cut  from  its  tough  joints.  Other  parts  of  this 
plant  are  used  in  making  baskets,  paper,  ropes,  boats,  cloth  and 
weapons. 


The  vege- 
tation  of  the 
hot  belt  sur- 
passes  in  va- 
iety  and  density 
that  of  any  other 
belt.  In  places  the 
trees  grow  in  dense 
masses,  with  long  vines 
weaving  networks  among  the 
branches.  Many  orchids  of  rich 
color  and  beautiful  shape  grow 
in  the  forests.  There  are  also  tree  ferns,  huge  lilies  and  count- 
less  other  plants  wliich  we  can  see  only  in  hothouses. 

The  thick  foliage  shuts  out  the  drying  sunshine  from  the  lands 
in  many  parts  of  the  hot  belt.  The  rainfall  being  heavy,  these 
lands  become  very  wet  and  therefore  unhealtliful  for  white 
people. 


PLANTS  OP  THE  WARM  BELTS. 


109 


Most  of  the 

cactus  plants  jsj 

have  leafless  c°^  </jL 
stems,  with  large 
thorns.  t" 

The  century  plant 
yields  a valuable  fiber 
from  which  cordage  is 
made. 

In  many  parts  of  the 
warm  beits,  and  some  parts 
of  the  cool  beits,  there  are 
followed  by 


WfåSL  % of  these  beits. 
'féWPégk  Cotton  also  is  one 
of  the  leading  prod- 
ucts. 

The  most  productive 
cotton  regions  in  the  world 
it  are  the  warm  plains  of  the 
United  States,  India  and 
> Egypt. 

< The  value  of  this  plant  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  about 
i one  half  the  people  of  the  earth 
wear  clothing  made  wholly  of 
cotton,  and  nearly  all  the  rest 
of  the  human  race,  except  some 
IW  savage  tribes,  use 
f | 1 i it  in  part  of  their 

Ute,  dress. 


BA0BA8 
_ TREE 


wet  seasons 
months  of  drouth.  In  such 
regions,  the  rains  or  the  melted 
snow  of  the  uplands  is  often 
gathered  into  reser- 
voirs,foruse  „ J . Ifi\  i 


108.  Plants  of  the  Warm  Beits. 

What  lands  are  in  the  northern  warm  belt?  What  lands  are  in 
the  Southern  warm  belt  ? See  map  on  page  18. 

What  are  the  seasons  in  these  beits  ? 

The  plants  of  the  warm  beits  resemble  those  in  the 
hot  belt.  Most  of  the  trees  are  _evergreens,  — 
that  is,  they  do  not  shed  their 
leaves  in  winter.  Figs,  dates, 
olives  and  grapes  abound, 
and  large  groves 
of  oranges  and 
lemons  are  a 
source  of 
wealth  in 
many 

parts  Jg 


forms  on  the  stalk,  the  fields  are  again  flooded,  and  the  grain  ripens 
while  standing  in  water. 

Nearly  all  kinds  of  grain  thrive  in  parts  of  the  warm 
beits.  Among  the  other  valuable  plants  are  tea,  sugar 
cane,  sweet  potato  and  tobacco.  Most  of  the  tea  comes 
sUBAf,  c^-^from  southeast  Asia.  There  is  also  found  the  teak 
tree  which  supplies  valuable  lumber,  and 
the  mulberry  upon  whose 
leaves  silkworms  feed. 
Many  species  of  cac- 
tuses  grow  in  Mexico 
and  the  arid  lands 
in  the  South- 
west part  of 
the  United 
States. 


- IG5 


For  ages 
rice  has  been 
one  of  the 
leading  food 
crops  in  China, 

Japan,  India  and  other 
parts  of  the  warm  beits. 

Rice  grows  both  in  low- 
land  and  in  upland  regions. 

The  best  rice  is  raised  on  flooded  lands.  The  fields  are  first  laid 
out  in  drills,  or  little  furrows,  about  fifteen  inches  apart.  In  these 
the  seed  is  sown,  and  then  water  is  let  in.  This  stands  till  the 
seed  sprouts,  and  the  water  is  then  drained  off.  When  a joint 


during  the 
dry  season. 
Canals  or 
ditches  from 
these  reservoirs  lead 
- the  water  into  groves, 
vineyards  and  vegetable  gardens.  If  it 
were  not  for  this  water  supply,  some  of  the 
most  fruitful  regions  of  the  earth  would  be 
little  more  than  deserts  for  half  the  year. 

In  places  having  seasons  of  dTouth,  water  is  sometimes  obtained 
by  sinking  or  driving  pipes  into  the  ground,  thus  reaching  a sup- 
ply of  ground  water.  Many  thousand  of  these  artesian  wells  feed 
ditches  that  lead  water  to  groves  and  gardens  in  the  warm  beits. 


110 


PLANTS  OF  THE  COOL  BELTS. 


109.  Plants  of  the  Cool  Beits. 

What  lands  are  in  the  Southern  cool  belt  ? 

What  large  river  basins  are  wholly  or  in  part  in  the  northern 
cool  belt  ? What  higlilands  in  the  Old  World  bound  this  belt  on 
the  south  ? 

What  are  the  seasons  in  the  cool  belt  ? 

The  cool  beits  are  often  called  the  beits  of  grains. 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  oats  and  barley  are  raised  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  tliese  beits. 

Ainong  the  leading  nations,  wheat  is  the  grain  most 
widely  used  for  food.  The  crops  that  supply  the  markets 
of  the  world  are  raised  chiefly  in  the  prairies  and  other 
plains  of  the  cool  beits. 

Corn  is  another  valuable  grain.  It  was  raised 
by  the  Indians  long  before  the  white  man  came 
to  this  country.  Corn  is  a rapid  grower  and  is 
wide-spread  over  the  cool 
beits  and  the  lands  still 
nearer  the  equator.  This 
grain  is  better 
suited  to  the 
prairies  having 
hot  summers, 
than  to  the 
British  Isles 
with  their  mild 
weather  last- 
ing  nearly 
all  the  year. 

Rye,  oats 
and  barley 
are  hardy 
grains  and 
thrive  in 


Linen  clotli  and  thread  are  made  f rom  the  silky 
fibers  that  form  an  inner  bark  round  the 
stalk  of  flax.  Linseed  oil  is  pressed 
from  flaxseed.  This  oil  is  largely 
used  in  paints. 

Hemp  is  used  in  making  ropes 
and  coarse  clotli. 


Many  hard-wood  trees, 
such  as  the  oak,  maple 
and  walnut,  grow  in 
the  warmer  parts  of 


APPLE 


Grape 

VINt 


cool  beits. 


most  parts 
of  the  cool 
beits. 

Barley  is  per- 
haps  the  most 
wide-spread  of 
grains.  It  grows 
both  upon  the  Arctic 
shore  of  Norway  and  in 
the  valley  of  the  upper  Nile, 
not  far  from  the  equator. 

Flax  and  hemp  thrive  in  the 
Next  to  cotton,  flax  is  the  most 


valuable  of  the  fiber  plants. 


the  cool  beits. 
Forests  of 
cone  - bearing 
trees,  called 
evergreens, 
thrive  in  the 
colder  parts  of 
these  beits, 
both  on  plains  and 
higlilands.  Trees 
of  this  kind  abound 
also  on  the  cool 
mountain  sides  in 
the  warm  and  the  hot  beits. 

The  pine,  spruce,  fir,  liemlock  and  cedar  sup- 
ply the  most  useful  soft-wood  timber.  The 
giant  trees  of  California  belong  in  this  group. 
The  cone-bearers  are  of  great  value.  They 
are  very  wide-spread  ; their  wood  is  light  and  strong ; 
they  yield  tar,  pitch,  rosin  and  turpentine.  Try  to  find 
out  the  uses  of  these  products. 

Orchard  fruits,  hay  and  vegetables  thrive  in  many 
parts  of  these  beits. 

Vegetables  are  not  generally  raised  on  such  a large  scale  as 
the  grains,  yet  the  scattered  vegetable  crops,  taken  as  a wliole, 
yield  large  returns. 

The  raising  of  vegetables  for  market  is  called  ruarket  garden- 
ing.  The  best  locations  for  market  gardens  are  near  large  cities 
where  the  fresh  produce  meets  with  ready  sale.  Try  to  find  out 
where  the  vegetables  used  in  your  home  are  raised. 

Hay  is  a very  valuable  crop  in  regions  where  many  horses  and 
cattle  are  raised  and  where  there  are  long  periods  of  cold  or 
drouth. 

Apples,  pears,  peaches  and  grapes  are  wide-spread  over  these 
beits. 


ANIMALS,  — THEIR  HABITS  AND  USES. 


111 


110.  Plants  of  the  Northern  Cold  Belt. 


What  lands  are  in  the  nortliern  cold  belt?  What  large  rivers 
How  into  the  Arctic  ocean  ? 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  seasons  in  this  belt  ? 

Some  kinds  of  pine,  spruce,  bircli,  willovv  and  other 
hardy  trees  grow  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  northern 
cold  belt.  Northward  the  trees  become  fewer  and 
smaller,  ending  with  dwarf  birches  and  willows,  only  a 
fevv  inches  in  height,  on  the  dreary  plains  near  the  Arctic 
sliore.  There,  in  the  cold  marshy  tundras  are  also  found 
mosses,  lichens  and  stunted  shrubs. 

On  the  north  west  coast  of  Greenland  witliin  a few  hundred  miles 
of  the  pole,  and  also  on  the  tundras,  the  summer  sun  melts  the 
winter  snow  wliich  has  buried  the  land.  Little  lakes  form,  and 


DWARF 

WILLOW 


brooks  run  into  the 
sea.  Sap  starts  in 
the  willow  stems, 
and  Arctic  hares 
come  from  their 
hoies  to  feed  on  the 
bursting  budsv  The 
slopes  are  bright 
with  poppies,  saxi- 
frages  and  other  hardy  flowering  plants. 

Large  patches  of  ground  are  then  covered 
with  orange  and  gray  lichens.1 

All  these  things  are  seen  wliere  only  a few  weeks  before  the  land 
was  wrapped  in  the  snow  and  the  darkness  of  the  loug  Arctic  winter. 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  days  and  nights  witliin  the 
Arctic  circle  ? 

1 Adapted  from  Ilayes’  Open  Polar  Sea. 


AIIMALS. 


111  Animals,  — Their  Habits  and  Uses 

What  do  cows  feed  on  ? Hens  ? M ice  ? 
Oats  ? Bees  ? Horses  ? 

What  kirnl  of  covering  has  an  oyster? 

A lobster?  A bear?  An  ostrich? 

A snake?  A frog? 

Can  you  name  two  animals  tliat  live 
botli  on  land  and  in  water? 

How  does  a cat  defend  itself  ? A 
horse  ? A cow  ? A bee  ? 

How  does  a robin  move  from  place 
to  place  ? A snake  ? A fisli  ? A 
frog  ? A horse  ? 

Naine  some  of  the  uses  of  cows,  — of 
horses,  —of  dogs,  — of  sheep,  — of  hens, 

— of  seals. 


112.  Animals  and  Their  Homes. 


The  Animal  Realms. 


Every  kind  of  creature  grows 
to  suit  its  native  haunts.  By  its 

teeth,  feet  and  other  parts  of  its  body,  every  animal  is 


the  birds  can 


fitted  to  seize  and  devour  its 
proper  food. 

Ducks  take  their  food 
largely  from  ponds  and 
streams.  These  fowl 
have  webbed  feet  and  can 
swim  easily  and  swiftly. 
The  oily  bodies  of  ducks 
grow  very  wide  and  are 
tlius  well  suited  to  float. 
Along  the  inner  edges  of  a duck’s  bill 
are  many  bristles  that  form  a kind  of 
strainer.  Wlien  the  duck  swims  with 
her  open  bill  in  the  water,  insects 
and  small  plants  are  caught  in  this 
strainer. 

The  common  woodpeekers  have  strong 
bilis  to  peek  hoies  in  bark  wliere  worms  and  in- 
sects live.  Eacli  foot  of  the  woodpecker  has  two 
toes  in  front  and  two  curved  backwards.  These 
easily  eling  to  the  rough  surfaces  of  trees  and 
climb  very  quickly. 


112 


ANIMALS,— THEIR  HABITS  AND  USES. 


Every  kind  of  creature  has  the  kind  of  covering  that 
suits  its  native  home. 


They  may  be  swift  and  strong,  but  they  cannot  live  in 
regions  that  do  not  supply  their  food. 


Most  animals  have  a much  wider  range  than  plants. 
The  former  are  always  free  to  mo  ve  from  place 

to  place  as 
the  seasons 
change  or  as 
periods  of 
drouth  come 
on.  The  chief 
barriers  to 
their  travel 


lobsters  with  strong  shells.  Each  kind  of  covering 
is  suited  to  certain  liaunts. 

Animals  make  their  homes  in  or  near  the 
places  that  supply  their  food. 

Moths  of  many  kinds  lay  eggs  on  the  leaves  which  will 
form  tlie  food  of  the  larvae  when  the  eggs  hatch.  Spiders 
weave  webs  in  places  where  flies  and  other  insects  flit  about. 

Many  birds  build  their  nests  in  fruit  trees.  Most  woodpeckers 
make  their  homes  in  decaying  trees  where  there  are  generally  many 
insects.  Frogs  lay  eggs  in  ponds  where  their  tadpoles  can  feed. 


Whales  that  live  in  polar  seas  have  thick  layers  of  fat,  or  blubber, 
to  keep  the  icy  water  from  chilling  their  muscles.  Seals  are  covered 

with  warm  fur,  rob- 
ins  with  light 
feathers,  alpacas 
with  curly  wool, 


The  warm  parts  of  the  Old  World  are  the  home  of  the  elephant 
and  the  giraffe.  What  prevents  these  animals  from  reaching  South 
America  ? Why  cannot  cattle  cross  wide  deserts  ? 

Many  animals  have  been  taken  by  man  to  new  homes. 

Cattle,  sheep,  hogs  and  horses  have  been  shipped  from  Europe 
across  the  ocean,  and  now  thrive  in  many  parts  of  America.  Count- 
less  birds  have  been  carried  to  places  far  from  their  native  haunts. 


Among  wild  animals  there  is  always  a struggle  for  food 
and  for  life. 

Tigers  pounce  upon  deer  and  cattle  ; many  birds  feed  on  worras 
and  insects  ; owls  destroy  field  mice ; polar  bears  catch  seals  and 
fisli.  Each  creature  may  be  the  prey  of  some  other. 

Every  animal  has  some  means  of  defense  or  escape. 

The  chamois  leaps  from  crag  to  crag ; the  rattlesnake  strikes 
with  poison  fangs  ; the  deer  runs  swiftly ; the  frog  dives  into 
water  ; the  ostrich  kicks  and  runs. 

Nearly  all  animals  have  power  to  move  about  and  seek 
new  homes.  There  are  places  that  animals  cannot  cross. 


are  oceans, 
deserts  and 
highlands. 


These  fea- 
tures  di- 
vide  the 
earth  into 

great  reahns,  each  having  some  groups  of  animals  that 
differ  from  those  of  the  other  realms.  Many  kinds  of 
animals  in  each  realm  are  also  found  in  other  realms,  for 
some  can  cross  places  that  are  barriers  to  others. 


SOUTH  AMERICAN  RE  ALM. 


113 


113.  South  American  Realm. 

This  realm  includes  South  America,  Central  America 
and  the  West  Indies.  It  reaches  from  the  plateau  of 
Mexico  to  Cape  Horn. 

Among  the  animals  of  the  Andes  highland  are  the 
llama  and  alpaca. 

These  are  in  the  same  family  as  the  camel,  but  they  have  no 


kept  in  flocks.  The  other,  called  the  guanaco,  is  hunted 
by  Indians  on  the  plains  southward  from  the  pampas. 

The  large  running  hird  known  as  the  rliea,  or  American 
ostrich,  is  found  in  the  same  region. 

Cattle  and  sheep  in  great  numbers  graze  on  the  pampas 
and  the  llanos.  These  animals  are  not  native  to  this 
land  but  were  early  brought  by  white  settlers  from 
Europe.  Hides,  wool  and  beef  are  leading  articles  of 


humps  of  fat  on  their 
backs,  nor  broad  pads 
on  their  feet.  Each  toe 
of  the  alpaca  and  the 
llama  has  a thick  sole 
that  clings  easily  to  the 
rough  rocks  over  which 
these  animals  climb  to 
find  grass. 

Alpacas  are  kept  in  large  flocks  by  the  Indians  of 
Bolivia  and  of  Peru.  These  animals  are  covered  wit.h 
fine  soft  wool. 

Llamas  were  at  one  time  used  in  great  numbers  to  carry  silver 
ore  from  the  mountain  mines  to  the  coast,  and  to  take  back  food 
and  clothing  to  the  miners.  Trains  of  cars  and  mules  now  do  most 
of  this  work.  Llama  wool  is  made  into  eloth,  but  this  wool  is  not 
so  fine  as  that  elipped  from  alpacas. 

Two  other  kinds  of  animals  in  South  America  resemble 
the  llama.  One  of  these,  the  vicuna,  has  fine  wool  and  is 


export  from  the  valleys  of 
the  La  Plata  and  the  Orinoco. 

Two  large  cat-like  animals 
are  found  in  America.  The 
jaguar  is  the  terror  of  nearly 
all  South  America  and  is  some- 
times  seen  as  far  north  as  the  Rio  Grande.  Pumas, 
or  panthers,  range  over  the  highland  from  the 
Southern  end  of  the  Andes  to  Canada.  The  con- 
dor,  largest  of  flying  birds,  may  often  be  seen  on 
the  high  peaks  of  the  Andes.  This  bird  is  so 
strong  that  it  sometimes  kills  sheep  and  deer. 

The  selvas  and  the  low  plateau  of  Brazil  are  the  home 
of  countless  wild  animals. 

In  these  regions,  Indians  hunt  the  shy  tapirs  for  their  skins 
and  meat.  These  creatures  feed  on  buds,  leaves  and  tender  shoots, 
in  the  deep  forest.  Sharp-clawed  ant-eaters  tear  open  the  ant- 
hills,  thrust  in  their  long  sticky  tongues,  and  gather  up  the  little 
insects  for  food.  Ant-eaters  are  often  victims  of  long  serpents 
called  boas.  These  serpents  have  no  poison  fangs,  but  they  coil 
around  animals  and  slowly  crush  them  to  death. 

There  are  armadillos,  with  bony  armor ; shaggy  sloths  that 
eling  to  branches,  by  means  of  hooked  toes,  and  feed  on  leaves  and 
fruit ; harmless  iguanas,  or  lizards,  four  or  five  feet  long,  that  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  hollow  parts  of  trees  ; fieree  peccaries  that  re- 
semble small  hogs  and  feed  on  roots  and  fallen  fruit. 

In  the  forest  and  along  the  streams  may  be  seen 
alligators,  monkeys,  parrots,  toucans  and  other  creatures 
without  number.  Brazil  is  the  home  of  swarms  of  bright- 
colored  insects. 


114 


NORTHERN  RE ALM. 


114.  Northern  Realm. 


The  Northern  realm  embraces  all  the  lands  ext.ending  north- 
ward  from  the  plateau  of  Mexico,  from  the  desert  of  Sahara  and 
from  the  Ilimalaya  mountains. 

All  of  North  America,  except  its  Southern  part,  is  within  this  realm. 
Wliat  large  river  basins  of  this  continent  does  the  realm  include? 

Name  five  river  basins  of  Asia  that  are  in  the  Northern  realm.  Wliat  part 
of  Asia  is  not  in  this  realm  ? 

What  continent  is  wholly  in  the  Northern  realm?  Which  part  of  Afriea 
is  in  this  realm? 

Bears  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  Northern  realm.  Of  these 
the  grizzly  bear  of  the  Rocky  mountains  is  the  strongest  and 
fiercest.  Black  bears  prowl  in  the  forest  regions  of  North  America, 
both  in  the  east  and  in  the  west.  The  fur  of  this  species  is  soft 
and  of  a glossy  black  color.  It  is  often  made  into  robes.  Brown 
bears  are  found  in  the  Old  World,  from  Japan  to  Spain. 

Largest  of  all  is  the  polar  or  white  bear  of  the  Arctic  regions. 
It  feeds  chiefly  on  seals  and  fish.  In  pursuit  of  these  the  polar 
bear  often  dives  into  the  icy  water  and  swims  long  distances.  This 
creature  is  never  found  far  from  the  sea  in  which  its  food  lives. 

Among  the  animals  which  make  their  home  in  the  highlands 
of  this  realm  are  the  bighorn,  or  Rocky  mountain  sheep,  the 
chamois  and  the  ibex  of  the  Alps,  the  Kashmir  goat  and  the  yak 
of  Tibet. 

The  yak  is  of  great  service  to  the  people  of  Tibet.  It  earries  heavy 
burdens,  and  supplies  milk,  meat  and  warm  skins.  Wild  yaks  live  at  a great 
height.  Tliey  have  been  seen  nearly  four  miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  prairies,  steppes  and  high  plains  of  this  realm 
support  millions  of  cattle,  sheep  and  horses.  These 
animals  are  not  native  to  any  part  of  America. 

Large  herds  of  bisons,  often 
called  buffaloes,  at  one  time 
grazed  on  the  plains  east  of  the 
Rocky  mountains.  Many  thou- 
sand  have  been  killed,  and  only 
a few  small  herds  are  known 
to  exist.  One  of  these  herds 
is  in  Yellowstone  park  and  is 
there  protected  by  law  from 
hunters.  The  turkey  is  native 
y to  America  and  is  now  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  fowl. 


NORTHERN  REALM. 


115 


OWL. 


Millions  of  fur-bearing  animals  live  in  the  great 
pine-forest  belt  of  the  north,  both  in  America  and 
Eurasia. 


There  the  cunning  beaver  feeds  on  berries,  leaves  and 
bark,  and  for  safety  builds  its  hut  at  the  edge  of  a lake  or 
a river.  The  watchful  otter  follows  the  .streams,  looking  for  fish.  The 
sable,  ermine  and  many  other  little  fur-bearers  also  make  this  region  their 
home.  The  finest  and  best  furs  in  the  world  come  from  the  cold  parts  of  the 
northern  realm. 


The  forest  belt  of  the  north  is  the  home  of  the  eik.  This 
animal  is  notecl  for  its  speed  and  for  its  broad  flat  antlers.  The 
American  eik  is  called  the  moose.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  deer 
family. 

The  reindeer  also  belongs  in  the  cold  regions  both  of  America 
and  the  Old  World. 

The  American  reindeer  on  the  mainland  is  called  the  caribou.  Reindeer 
range  northward  in  Greenland  to  within  less  than  a thousand  miles  of 
the  pole. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  Eurasia,  reindeer  are  tamed  and  kept  in  herds. 
The  hoofs  of  this  deer  are  very  wide  and  are  well  suited  for  travel  over 
snow  fields.  The  reindeer  is  very  swift  and  can  draw  heavy  loads. 

The  milk  and  the  flesh  of  reindeer  are  used  for  food.  Warm  clothing 
is  made  from  the  skins.  On  the  bleak  slopes  of  the  Old  World  many  a 
man’s  wealth  is  counted  in  reindeer.  In  summer  the  deer  feed  on  shoots 
and  leaves  of  shrubs  and  trees,  but  in  winter  they  scrape  through  the  snow 
to  find  a little  gray  lichen  called  reindeer  moss. 

During  the  very  short  Arctic  summer  many  seals,  sea  fowl  and 

Nature  has 


CHfejfcO  I S‘ 


other  creatures  visit  the  far  north,  in  searcli  of  food. 
given  to  them  downy  feathers,  soft  furs  or  oily  flesh, 
to  help  keep  them  warm. 


Great  whales  plow  the  icy  water.  One  kind  has  a large 
sieve  along  each  side  of  the  mouth.  The  sieve  is  made  of 
horny  blades  called  whalebone.  By  means  of  this  sieve,  the 
whale  gathers  its  food  from 

the  sea- water  which  it  takes  ^ \ 

into  its  mouth.  More  than  'A  k'd 

a ton  of  whalebone  has 

been  taken  from  the  mouth  f$r  4 Inf  wø 

of  a large  whale.  “ FVSSf 

Many  whales  were  for-  å l-  y* 

merly  killed  for  their  oil. 

Petroleum  has  now  largely  |Y  [ ■;  ajfwS  iH 

taken  the  place  of  whale  . ^ A 

oil  for  fighting  purposes.  r * 


CAWEL 


1 1 G 


AFRICAN  RE  ALM. 


ELEPHANT 


WILD  BOAR 


The  walrus  is  a large  animal  of  the  seal  family,  and  lives  along  the  Arctic 
coasts.  The  walrus  has  strong  ivory  tusks  that  it  uses  to  defend  itself  and  to 
dig  sliellfish  from  the  bottoms  of  bays.  It  is  killed  for  its  oil,  ivory,  hide  and 
coarse  flesh.  Seals  feed  chiefly  on  fish  that  they  catch  with  their  sharp  claws. 

They  swim  with  great  speed  but  are  cluinsy  on  the  land.  Some  seals  are  valued 
for  their  fine  fur.  Many  of  these  are  killed  on  the  Pribilof  islands  in  Bering  sea. 

Seals  form  a large  part  of  the  food  of  the  Eskimos.  Among  the  sea  fowl  which  visit  the 
Arctic  shores  in  summer,  to  feed  and  to  hatch  their  young,  are  eider  dueks,  geese  and  auks. 

115.  African  Realm. 

The  African  realm  includes  the  peninsula  of  Arabia  and  all  Africa  jackai 
except  the  region  north  of  the  Sahara  desert. 

This  realm  is  the  home  of  many  man-like  apes.  Among  these  the  fierce 
gorilla  holds  first  place  for  size  and  strength.  This  species  of  ape  is  found 
near  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  not  far  from  the  equator. 

The  gorilla  feeds  mostly  on  the  fruit  of  palm  and  banana  plants.  For  a nest  it  weaves 
vines  into  rude  hammocks  or  mats  among  thick  branches.  This  strong  beast  is  not  found 
in  any  other  part  of  the  earth. 

The  chimpanzee  lives  in  about  the  same  region  as  the  gorilla  and  also  far 
inland  near  the  lipper  Nile.  Many  other  apes  and  monkeys  are  found  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  Africa. 

The  vast  barren  tracts  in  this  realm  are  the  home  of  the  camel. 

The  camel  has  a wide  sole  under  the  toes  of  each  foot  to  prevent  it  from  sinking 
into  the  soft  sand.  The  nostrils  can  be  closed  at  will,  and  veils  of  hair  hang  over  the 
eyes  to  keep  out  the  hot  stinging  sand  which  often  blows  over  the  desert. 

The  camels  of  the  African  realm  have  single  humps  on  their  backs.  The  camels  of 
the  desert  region  in  central  Asia  have  double  humps. 

Before  the  camel  starts  on  a long  journey,  its  master  sees  that  the  hump  or  humps 
are  very  large.  These  odd  swellings  are  masses  of  fat.  When  the  beast  has  gone  for  a 
long  time  without  food,  this  fat  nourishes  the  body. 

For  tliree  or  four  days  at  a time,  the  camel  will  bear  a heavy  load  across  heated 
deserts,  without  drinking.  The  body  is  supplied  with  water  from  pouches,  or  water-cells, 
on  the  walls  of  the  first  stomach. 

Camel’s  milk  and  flesh  are  used  for  food.  The  long  hair  that  grows  on  the  hump, 
neck  and  legs  of  the  camel  is  made  into  cloth. 


One  species  of  elephant  is  found  in  Africa.  Each  year  thousands  of  these 
beasts  are  killed  for  their  ivory  tusks. 

The  lion  and  the  leopard  live  in  many  parts  of  this  realm.  They  prowl 
about  the  places  in  which  they  can  pounce  upon  deer  and  other  animals.  Among  the  huge  creatures  that  abound 
in  this  realm  are  the  thick-skinned  rhinoceros  with  horned  nose,  the  tall  giraffe  with  long  neck,  the  giant  ostrich  with 
fine  plumes  and  the  dreaded  crocodile  with  scaly  armor. 


The  tsetse  fly  is  about  as  large  as  the  house  fly  and  has  almost  the  same  colors  as  the  honey  bee.  The  home  of  this  insect  is  in 
parts  of  central  and  south  Africa.  The  sting  of  the  tsetse  fly  is  fatal  to  cattle,  liorses  and  dogs,  but  harmless  to  man. 


ORIENTAL  REALM. 


117 


MONKEYS*" 


KJTE 


THEASANT 


HORSE 


TIGER 


vROCQOiLE  of  the  GANGf 


P£AC0C$ 


lORANG  OUT^n' 


BUFFALO 


TAPIR 


BABIROUSSA' 


BANTENG  orWILDOXof  JAVA 


taken  by  horses. 
central  highland. 


Cattle  are  not  native  to  this  land,  but  many  cattle  are  now  raised 
in  the  parts  of  the  African  realm  which  are  free  from  the  tsetse  fly. 
The  Cape  buffalo  is  found  in  the  Southern  half  of  Africa. 

In  south  and  east  Africa  there  are  two  kinds  of  animals  related  to  the 
common  horse.  These  are  the  zebra  and  the  quagga.  They  are  hard  to  tame 
and  are  of  but  little  use  to  man.  Antelopes  in  large  numbers  graze  in  most 
parts  of  this  realm.  They  are  the  swiftest  of  four-footed  animals.  The  gnu, 
or  horned  horse,  is  an  antelope. 

116.  Oriental  Realm. 

The  Oriental  realm  lies  southward  from  the  Himalaya  and 
Nanling  ranges.  See  map  on  page  68.  This  realm  extends 
almost  to  Papua  and  Australia. 

The  orang-outan,  one  of  the  great  man-like  apes,  is  a native  of 
Borneo  and  Sumatra.  Apes  of  this  species  weave  rude  nests  among 
branches  and  are  rarely  seen  on  the  ground.  Their  food  consists 
chiefly  of  fruits  and  leaves. 

The  most  useful  animals  in  this  realm  are  the  zebu  and  the 
buffalo.  These  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  southeast  Asia  and 
have  spread  westward  into  Africa. 

Zebus  are  a kind  of  cattle  having  great  hurnps  on  their  shoulders.  Some 
of  these  animals  are  used  for  riding,  and  they  can  travel  all  day  at  the  rate  of 
five  or  six  miles  an  hour.  Zebus  are  also  used  for  plowing,  drawing  carts  and 
doing  other  kinds  of  work. 

The  true  buffalo  of  India  is  often  found  in  the  wild  state.  Tame  buffaloes 
are  useful  beasts  of  burden.  These  animals  have  very  wide  hoofs,  and  are 
well  suited  to  work  on  marshy  or  soft  lands.  Many  buffaloes  are  now  used 
as  draft  animals  in  the  marshy  parts  of  Southern  Europe. 

There  are  both  wild  and  tame  elephants  in  this  realm.  Many 
of  these  huge  beasts  are  trained  to  work,  but  the  cost  of  feeding 
them  is  very  great,  and  their  places  are  to  a large  extent  being 
The  cat-like  tiger  is  a native  of  Asia.  It  ranges  as  far  north  as  the  Amur  river  but  avoids  the  great 


The  tiger  feeds  on  cattle,  deer  and  other  animals. 


This  fierce  beast  often  swims  from  island  to  island  in  the  Ganges  delta. 


The  one-horfied  rhinoceros  belongs  in  the  Oriental  realm.  Two  species  are  there  found. 

This  huge  beast  sleeps  during  the  day  and  comes  from  its  haunt  in  the  evening  to  browse  on  shrubs,  leaves  and  grass. 

Large  crocodiles,  called  gavials,  infest  thé  Ganges  delta  and  the  lower  parts  of  many  streams  in  this  realm. 

These  reptiles  have  long  narrow  snouts  and'grow  to  the  length  of  about  sixteen  feet.  Gavials  are  of  service  to  man,  for  they  devour 
the  bodies  of  animals  which  float  down  the  streams. 


118 


AUSTRALIAN  RE  ALM. 


117.  Australian  Realm. 


The  Australian  realm  includes  Australia,  Papua,  New  Zealand  and  many  groups  of  small  islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean. 

Most  of  the  animals  in  this  realm  differ  widely  from  those  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Many  have  pouches  for 
carrying  their  helpless  yonng.  These  pouches  are  made  by  folds  in  the  skin  on  the  under  side  of  the  body. 

The  name  kangaroo  is  given  to  several  species  of  pouched  animals.  Some  of  these  are  about  the  size  of  rats. 
Others  are  as  large  as  men.  Large  kangaroos  are  hunted  for  their  skins,  from  which  fine  soft  leather  is  made.  These 
animals  travel  very  swiftly,  by  making  long  leaps. 

The  emu  is  related  to  the  ostrich.  The  plumage  of  the  emu  is  long  and  hair-like, 
but  there  are  only  the  rudiments  of  wings.  This  bird  cannot  fly,  but  it  runs  with 
great  speed.  The  emu  is  hunted  for  the  oil  in  its  skin. 

The  apteryx  of  New  Zealand  belongs  to  the  same  order  of  birds  as  the  emu,  the  ostrich  and  the 
rhea.  The  duck  mole  ( [omithorynchus ) of  Australia  lays  eggs  and  sits  on  them, 
but  it  is  not  a bird.  The  duck  mole  has  soft  brown  fur  and  may  often  be 
seen  in  ponds  and  streams.  It  feeds  mostly  on  insects  and  worms  that  live 
in  the  water. 

The  echidna  is  covered  with  sharp  spines.  It  feeds  on  ants  and  other 
insects.  This  animal  has  no  teeth,  but  from  a long  snout  it  runs  out  a sticky 
tongue  to  seize  its  food.  The  echidna  lays  eggs  but  does  not  sit  on  them. 

The  eggs  are  hatched  in  its  warm  pouch,  and  there  the  little  animals  also 
remain  till  they  grow  strong. 

The  Australian  realm  abounds  in  black  swans,  lyre  birds,  parrots, 
brush  turkeys,  pigeons,  ducks,  geese  and  other  kinds  of  birds. 

Sheep  and  cattle  are  not  native  to  Australia,  but  are  now 
counted  there  in  millions. 

The  chief  grazing  regions  are  near  the  eastern  ranges  of  the 
continent. 

118.  Other  Products  of  the  Sea. 


The 


Pearls  come  from  some  kinds  of  shellfish 
finest  are  taken  from  pearl  oysters.  These 
are  found  not  far  from  the  shores  of  nearly 
all  tropical  seas. 

Sponges  are  torn  from  rocks  on  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  at  depths  that  vary  from 
a few  feet  to  several  hundred.  The  sponges 
of  commerce  come  largely  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean  and  Red  seas,  and  from  the  Bahama 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Florida.  Most  of  the 
fish  which  are  used  for  food  are  caught  near 
the  shores  of  the  sea  or  in  rivers  and  lakes. 

Great  turtles  live 
within  or  near  the 
tropics  and  form  a 
large  part  of  the 
food  supply  on  many 
tropical  islands. 


DINOO 


C O M MEEC  E. 


119 


119.  Domestic  and  Foreign  Commerce. 


120.  Highways  of  Trade,  — Water  Routes. 


No  state  nor  country  produces  all  the  things  which  its  The  principal  highways  of  trade  are  oceans,  railroads, 
people  need,.  but  each  has  a surplus  of  some  products.  rivers  and  canals. 


each  year,  wliile . China  and 
Japan  can  supply  us  with  tea. 

England  cannot  raise  grain  or 
beef  enough  for  her  own  people, 
but  the  prairies  of  the  United  States  and 
the  steppes  of  Russia  have  wheat  and 
cattle  to  spare. 

New  England  has  skilled  workmen  and  great 
rnills  for  cloth-making.  No  cotton  grows  in  that 
region,  but  enough  is  produced  on  the  Southern 
plains  to  supply  all  the  mills  in  our  own  country,  and  many  in 
Great  Britain  besides. 

The  buying  and  seiling,  or  the  exchange  of  goods,  is 
called  trade.  Trade  on  a large  scale  may  be  called  com- 
merce. Domestic  commerce  is  that  carried  on 
between  various  parts  of  one  country.  Foreign 
commerce  is  that  carried  on  between  one 
country  and  another. 

Which  of  the  following  are  domestic 
trade  and  which  are  foreign  ? — Boston 
seiis  boots  and  shoes  to  the  people  of 
Texas.  Brazil  sends  rabber  to  New  York. 

Chicago  sends  beef  to  nearly  all  parts  of 
our  country  and  to  Europe.  France  ex- 
ports  laces  to  the  United  States.  Switzer- 
land  imports  raw  silk  from  Italy. 

Great  Britain  leads  in  foreign 
commerce.  Germany  ranks  second ; 

France  third;  the  United  States  fourth 

Our  principal  exports  are  cotton  from  the  Eddystone  LisM,  Eng 
Southern  plains ; grain  and  flour  from  the  prairies ; beef 
and  pork  from  the  prairies  and  Western  plains.  Our 
imports  are  chiefly  sugar,  coffee  and  clotli. 


and 


are  no  wagon  roads,  no  canals,  no  rivers,  no  railroads,  no  arms  of 
the  sea,  — none  of  the  greater  highways  of  trade. 

Aged  people  can  recall  the  time  when  there  was  not  a railroad 
nor  a steamship  in  the  world.  In  those  days  the  large  rivers  in 
trading  counfries  were  alive  with  boats,  while  såiling  vessels  on 
the  oceans  and  inland  seas  went  freighted  from  port  to 
port.  Railroads  are  now  used  more  than  river  boats, 
most  of  the  freight  which  goes  by  water  is 
carried  by  steamers. 

The  rivers  which  are  of  greatest 
use  as  routes  of  trade  are  those 
which  are  deep  and  slow,  and  which 
flow  through  the  most  productive 
regions. 

Thus  the  Mississippi  river  system  forms 
a great  highway  of  trade  for  the  states 
which  are  reached  by  its  navigable  streams. 
This  river  system  branches  among  the  grain- 
fields,  the  forests,  the  grazing  lands  and  the  coal 
fields  of  the  upper  Mississippi  valley,  and  among 
the  cotton  and  sugar  plantations  of  the  South.  Iin- 
mense  quantities  of  the  products  of  these  regions  are 
freighted  on  the  main  river  and  its  branches.  Large  ocean  steamers 
aseend  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans,  to  load  with  cotton,  sugar, 
rice  and  other  products. 


Neither  tea  nor  coffee  grows  in  our  country.  Brazil,  however, 
is  able  to  send  us 
millions  of 
pounds  of 
coffee 


Besides  the  transportation  on  these  great  highways,  we  have 
learned  that  camels  bear  loads  of  salt,  ivory  and  oil  across 
broad  deserts  ; that  reindeer  drag  sledges  over  the  icy  plains 
of  northern  Eurasia;  that  yaks  toil  up  and  down  the 
Himalaya  slopes ; that  llamas  carry  packs,  or 
bundles  of  goods,  over  some  parts  of  the  Andes. 
These  animals  are  of  great  service  to  man,  for 
they  can  bear  burdens  in  places  where  there 


120 


HIG-HWAYS  OF  TRADE,  — WATER  ROUTES. 


Lakes  and  inland  seas  that  lead  in 
the  direction  of  trade  centers  ai’e  often 
of  greater  service  than  ri  vers. 

The  water  way  along  the  Gveat  Lakes  is 
of  more  importance  than  any  other  lake  or 
river  route  in  the  world.  The  rapid  growth 
of  trade  along  this  route  is  due  to  many 
causes,  among  which  are  the  following : The 
grainfields,  pastures,  coal  lields,  oil  wells, 
iron  mines  and  large  manufacturing  cities  of 
our  country  are  chiefly  in  the  northern  half  ; 
the  foreign  trade  of  this  region  is  carried  on  mostly 
with  countries  of  Europe  ; the  goods  pass  through 
New  York,  Boston  and  other  large  Atlantic  ports. 

In  this  immense  east-and-west  trade,  the  Mississippi 
system  is  of  little  use,  because  it  leads  southward  to  the 
gulf  of  Mexico;  but  the  Great  Lakes  extend  far  eastward 
from  the  very  heart  of  the  producing  regions,  and  there  is 
consequently  more  shipping  on  these  lakes  than  goes  to  and  from 
any  seaport  in  the  world.  Lines  of  steamers  connect  all  the  large 
lake  ports,  — for  example,  'Chicago  with  Milwaukee,  Detroit, 
Buffalo  and  other  cities ; Detroit  with  Cleveland ; Buffalo  with 


Grain  Elevator  and  Whaleback  Steamer. 


Duluth.  Small  vessels  from  the  Great  Lakes  can  reach  the  ocean 
also,  by  going  down  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and  through  the  short 
canals  which  have  been  built  past  rapids  in  this  river. 

The  oceans  form  the  main  highway  of  trade  between 
distant  nations.  The  sea  spreads  in  one  vast  body  around 
the  continents,  so  that  a ship  can  sail  from  any  one  of 
the  oceans 
to  all  the 
others. 

Seapor ts 
handle  freight 
for  ocean  com- 
merce.  The 
best  ports  are 
on  deep  and 
spacious  har- 
bors  sheltered 

from  gales  and  storm-waves.  The  largest  ports  grow  where  they 
can  most  easily  handle  exports  and  imports.  Such  cities  are  built 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  producing  regions,  — whether  farms. 


Elevated  Railroad,  New  York. 


forests,  mines  or  manufacturing  centers  ; for 
the  exports  must  be  taken  to  the  shipping 
points,  and  the  imports  must  be  distributed 
from  those  points. 

Many  large  seaports,  such  as 
London,  New  York,  Liverpool, 
Boston  and  San  Francisco,  are  on 
deep  harbors  formed  by  the 
slight  drowning  of  river  val- 
leys.  The  harbors  are  in  many 
cases  some  distance  inland, 
at  the  head  of  the 
drowned  part  of  the 
valleys.  Tidal  cur- 
rents  flowing  in  and 
out  of  the  rivers  help 
vessels  to  enter  and 
elear  from  the  ports. 

Thus,  London  is 
seventy  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames, 

— 70  miles  inland  towards  the  farms  and  workshops  of  busy  Eng- 
land. Montreal  is  about  1000  miles  up  the  drowned  valley  of 
the  St.  Lawrence.  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore 
are  near  the  heads  of  two  bays  in  slightly-drowned 
valleys.  The  nearer  a steamer  can  go  to  the  places 
which  supply  or  receive  freight,  — the  nearer  to 
the  producer  or  the  consumer,  — the  cheaper  the 
rates  of  transportation  are. 

The  largest  seaports  of  our  country  are  along 
the  northeast  coast.  They  have  grown  up  where 
they  can  most  easily  carry  on  trade  both  with 
Europe  and  with  the  principal  producing  regions 
of  the  United  States.  About  one  half  the  foreign 
trade  of  our  nation  passes  through  the  great  port 
of  New  York.1  Boston  ranks  second  to  that  port. 
Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  also  have  a large 
foreign  and  coastwise  trade. 

The  larger 
map  on  this 
page  shows  the 
principal  routes 
followed  by  steamers,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  by  såiling  vessels. 

The  dotted  lines  indicate  routes 
followed  by  foreign  vessels.  The 
solid  lines  show  the  principal 
routes  of  steamers  owned  in  the 
United  States. 

Name  six  foreign  ports  that 
can  be  reached  by  American 
lines  of  steamers. 

England,  with  her  ex- 
tensive  manufactures  and 
her  numerous  colonies,  has 
grown  to  be  the  center  of 
the  world’s  ocean  commerce. 

1 The  port  or  customs  district  of 
New  York  embraces  the  city  of  New 
York,  together  with  Brooklyn,  Jersey 
City  and  adjacent  places  on  New 
A ork  bay.  Northern  and  Southern  Hemlspheres. 


RAILROADS. 


121 


From  western  Europe  the  chief  routes  are  as  follows: 
By  way  of  the  Suez  canal  to  Asia  and  Australia;  west 
and  Southwest  to  America ; south  to  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  thence  to  Australia  and  Asia. 

From  the  large  Atlantic  ports  of 
the  United  States  the  routes 
are  as  follows : Eastward  to 
Europe;  south  east  to  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
thence  to. Australia,  south- 
east  Asia  and  the  East 
Indies;  south  ward  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  around 
Cape  Horn,  and  thence  to  the 
Pacific  ports  of  America. 

From  San  Francisco,  the 
routes  lead  westward  to 
Asia ; and  Southwest  to  Australia. 

121.  Railroads. 

In  progressive  countries,  railroads  are  fast 
taking  the  trade  away  from  rivers  and  canals. 

For  a long  time  after  railroads  came  into  use,  freight 
charges  by  rail  were  very  high,  while  the  rates  on  rivers 
and  canals  were  much  lower.  In  recent  years,  the  charges 
on  railroads  have  become  so  low  that  most  of  the  freight 
goes  in  cars. 

The  building  of  steam  railroads  in  the  United  States  began 
about  1830.  The  first  railroad  west  of  the  Mississippi  river  was 
built  about  fifty  years  ago.  The  first  road  from  the  Atlantic  coast 
to  the  Pacific  was  completed  in  1869. 


Freight  Yard,  Boston. 


In  early  times,  inland  towns  and  cities  grew  most  rapidly  along 
the  rivers,  lakes  and  canals,  but  now  the  most  rapid  growth  in 
many  parts  of  our  country  is  due  almost  wholly  to  railroads.  The 
best  locations  are  of  course  at  the  junctions  of  railroads  or  where 
the  railroads  reach  navigable  waters.  Thus,  Chicago  is  not  only 
the  largest  lake  port  in  the  world,  but  it  is 
also  the  greatest  railroad  center. 

The  map  on  this  page  shows  some  of 
the  most  important  railroad  and  canal 
routes  in  the  United  States.  Still 
others  appear  on  the  large  maps  of 
the  Supplement,  showing  the  various 
groups  of  states.  Nearly  every  city 
and  town  in  our  country  can  now 
be  reached  by  way  of  one  or 
more  lines  of  railroad. 

122. 

Aids  to  Commerce. 

The  commerce  of  the 
world  is  of  such 
great  importance 
that  nations  seek 
in  every  way  to 
foster  it. 

Lighthouses  are  built  on  dangerous  coasts  and  along  the  main 
channels  of  harbors.  Beacons,  buoys,  bells,  foghorns  and  light- 
ships  are  placed  where  they  are  most  likely  to  give  warning  of 
danger. 

Along  many  parts  of  the  coast,  men  and  boats  are  stationed  to 
assist  vessels  in  distress  and  to  try  to  save  the  lives  of  sailors 
whose  vessels  are  wrecked.  See  picture  on  page  16.  Harbors  are 
dredged  and  thus  deepened  ; rocks  are  removed  from  channels ; 
sea-walls  are  built  to  shelter  vessels  from  dangerous  storm-waves. 


Most  of  the  railroads  in  the  world  are 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  and 
nearly  one  half  of  these  roads  are  in  our 
country. 

The  railroads  of  the  United  States  are 
four  times  ■ as  long  as  its  navigable  rivers, 
or  long  enough  to  reach  about  seven  times 
around  the  earth.  If  these  railroads  were 
destroyed,  all  the  gold  and  silver  money 
in  the  world  would  not  pay  for  rebuilding 
them. 


The  growth  of  railroads  in  the  United  States 
is  due  chiefly  to  the  value  of  the  products  in 
widely-separated  regions  ; to  the  lack  of  rivers 
flowing  from  the  inland  districts  to  the  eastern 
seaboard  ; and  to  the  fact  that  the  surface  of  a 
great  portion  of  the  country  is  so  level  that  the 
railroads  are  constructed  at  low  cost. 

For  many  years,  railroads  were  built  to  carry  passengers  and 
freight  between  thickly  settled  regions,  but  some  of  the  newer  lines 
have  opened  the  way  into  unsettled  lands  and  have  thus  led  tc  the 
peopling  of  large  areas.  Before  the  railroads  were  built,  these 
lands  were  of  little  value,  for  there  was  no  way  to  send  products 
from  them  to  the  great  centers  of  trade. 


Commercial  nations  employ  men  known  as  nonsuls  in  all  the  large 
seaports.  The  consuls  try  to  promote  trade,  to  protect  shipping, 
and  to  secure  rights  that  belong  to  the  sailors  of  their  nations.  To 
assist  in  this  work,  armed  vessels  are  kept  in  readiness  to  go  to 
any  port  where  commerce  needs  protection.  One  of  the  pictures  on 
page  119  shows  a modem  warship  belonging  to  the  United  States. 


122 


TIME  BELTS  AND  DATE  LINE. 


Ocean  cables,  or  lines  of  telegraph  under  the  sea,  are  a valuable 
aid  to  commerce.  When  a steamer  sails  with  freight  for  a foreign 
port,  agents  abroad  can  be  cabled  when  to  expect  it  and  wliat  to  do 
with  it.  Consuls  also  can  cable  for  help  in  times  of  trouble,  and 
important  news  of  all  kinds  can  be  sent  along  these  wires  laid  deep 
in  the  sea.1  t 

The  regular  mails  and  the  telegraph  lines  on  the  land  are  of  so 
mucli  assistance  to  trade  that  when  storms  blow  down  the  wires 
and  block  the  mail  trains,  the  Wholesale  trade  almost  ceases.  The 
telephone  also  has  recently  taken  an  important  place  in  the  world 
of  commerce. 

123.  Time  Beits  and  International  Date  Line. 

As  the  eartli  rotates  from  west  to  east,  Boston  is  turned  into  the 
sunlight  about  an  hour  earlier  each  morning  than  Chicago.  After 
sunrise  in  Chicago,  darkness  continues  for  more  than  twp  hours  in 
San  Francisco.  Can  you  tell  why? 

How  many  degrees  are  there  in  a circle  ? In  how  many  hours 
does  the  earth  rotate  360°  ? How  many  degrees  does  the  earth 


rotate  in  one  hour?  The  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska, 
extehds  from  the  67th  meridian  almost  to  the  125th.  About  how 
many  hours  elapse  each  day  while  the  midday  sun  is  over  some 
part  of  our  country  ? 

When  it  is  midday  along  the  75th  meridian,  what  time  is  it  along 
the  90th  ? — Along  the  105th  ? — Along  the  120th  ? How  far 
apart  are  these  meridians  ? Which  is  nearest  New  York  ? Whicli 
is  nearest  Chicago  ? Which  is  nearest  San  Francisco  ? 

If  all  clocks  were  set  by  the  midday  sun,  calling  midday  twelve 
o’clock,  the  time  would  differ  in  cities  east  or  west  of  one  another. 
A watch,  though  correct  in  one  of  these  places,  would  be  wrong  in 
all  others.  A traveler  could  not  then  rely  on  his  watch,  for  exact 
railroad  time. 

In  order  to  secure  uniform  time  over  large  districts, 
railroad  companies  have  divided  the  country  into  four 
beits,  each  of  which  takes  its  time  from  a certain  meridian. 
Timepieces  in  the  Eastern  belt  are  set  by  the  true  or 
mean  solar  time  on  the  75th  meridian.  All  timepieces 

1 The  large  commercial  map  of  the  world,  in  the  Supplement,  shows  the 
routes  of  the  cables. 


therefore  in  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Washington, 
Richmond,  and  all  other  places  in  this  belt,  are  regulated 
to  agree.2 

In  like  manner,  all  places  in  the  Central  belt,  the 
Mountain  belt  and  the  Pacific  belt  take  their  time  from 
the  meridians  of  90°,  105°  and  120°  respectively.  As  these 
meridians  are  15°  apart,  the  time  in  each  belt  differs 
exactly  one  hour  from  the  time  in  the  belt  on  either  side. 

The  time  in  general  use  over  a belt  is  called  standard 
time  or  railroad  time. 

In  going  from  one  time  belt  into  another,  travelers  set  their 
watches  forward  or  back  one  hour.  Traveling  eastward,  which 
way  should  the  hands  of  a watch  be  moved  when  another  time  belt 
is  reached  ? 

The  borders  of  the  time  beits  are  made  irregular  to  favor  rail- 
road companies  that  wish  to  use  uniform  time  over  very  large  areas. 
Which  of  these  beits  is  the  widest  ? How  many  hours  differenee 
in  time  is  there  between  Boston  and  San  Francisco  ? 

International  Date  Line.  The  cornmon 
day,  often  called  the  civil  day.  lasts  from 
midnight  to  midnight,  — twenty-four  hours. 
In  order  that  the  civil  day  may  have  the 
same  number  or  date  the  world  around,  the 
leading  nations  have  agreed  to  use  the  date 
of  the  days  as  tliey  begin  on  the  180th 
meridian. 

For  example,  the  fourth  day  of  July  begins  on 
the  180th  meridian  at  midnight  following  the  third 
of  July.  At  that  time  it  is  midday  of  the  third 
of  July  in  Greenwich ; and  six  o’clock  in  the 
morning  of  the  same  day  in  New  Orleans,  90°  W. 
Then  as  the  earth  rotates  towards  the  east,  both 
London  and  New  Orleans  are  turned  into  dark- 
ness, the  one  six  hours  aliead  of  the  other.  As 
soon  as  it  is  midnight  in  London,  that  city  begins 
to  count  the  new  date  of  July  4th ; six  hours 
later  New  Orleans  has  its  midnight  and  then  its 
fourth  of  July  begins. 

Thus  it  is  with  every  city,  — its  dates  are  counted  from  midnight 
to  midnight,  and  each  day  takes  the  same  date  as  that  given  to  the 
latest  new  day  on  the  180th  meridian.  We  may  think  of  the  new 
date  as  traveling  westward  with  the  midnight.  This  date  is  given 
to  each  place  as  soon  as  the  midnight  reaches  it.  When  midnight 
again  occurs  on  the  180th  meridian,  another  date  begins  its  journey 
round  the  earth. 

When  vessels  cross  the  180th  meridian,  they  either  drop  a day 
or  add  one  to  the  calendar.  As  the  new  date  begins  on  that  line,  a 
vessel  såiling  eastward  across  the  line  goes  out  of  the  area  having 
the  new  date  and  must  therefore  go  back  a day.  Såiling  westward, 
the  vessel  enters  the  area  having  a new  day  and  must  therefore  add 
a day  to  the  calendar.  Thus  when  såiling  eastward  across  the  line, 
Monday  is  dropped  for  Sunday ; but  såiling  westward  over  the  line, 
Saturday  at  once  gives  plaee  to  Sunday. 

The  meridian  of  180°,  at  which  all  new  civil  days  begin, 
is  called  the  “ International  date  line.” 

2 The  correct  time  is  sent  over  the  country  by  telegraph  from  the  United 
States  Naval  Observatory,  Washington.  On  page  123  there  is  a picture  of 
this  observatory. 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


123 


124.  Distribution  of  People.1 

After  the  famous  voyage  of  Columbus,  in  1492,  the 
various  nations  of  western  Europe  sent  expeditions  to  ex- 
plore  and  settle  the  New  World.  Foremost  among  these 
nations  were  England,  France  and  Spain. 


tionary  war,  Great  Britain  gave  Up  her  elaim  to  the  thirteen 
colonies.3 

In  1776  the  colonies  formed  a new  nation.  Each  col- 
ony  became  a state,  and  all  the  states  together  were  called 
the  United  States  of  America. 


The  French  explorers  went  up  the  St.  Lawrence  river  and  the 
Great  Lakes,  — thence  down  the  Mississippi  river.  Others  went 
up  the  Mississippi  from  its  mouth.  Many  people  of  French  descent 
now  live  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  and  speak  the  French 
language,  but  they  are  greatly  outnumbered  by  the  English 
speaking  people  in  the  same  region.  Most  of  the  early 
white  settlers  in  the  Southwest  portion  of 
our  country  came  from  Mexico,  which  was 


At  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  war  our  country  reached  from 
the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Mississippi  river,  but  Spain  then  held  the 
peninsula  of  Florida  and  a narrow  strip  of 
land  running  wrestward  along  the  Gulf 
coast.  Spain  claimed  also  the  vast  re- 
gion west  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

Since  the  Revo- 
lutionary war,  the 
United  States  has 
gained  the  lands 
westward  to  the 
Pacific  ocean,  south- 
ward  to  the  gulf  of 


once  held  by  Spain.  The  Spanish  language  is 
still  spoken  by  many  people  in  the  states  that 
border  on  Mexico. 


The  early  English  settlers  in  the 
United  States  made  their  homes  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  and  for  many  years 
did  not  spread  far  inland.2 


The  rugged  Appalachian  highland,  covered 
with  forests,  stood  between  the  coast  settle- 
ments  and  the  prairies.  There  were  no  rivers  flowing  from  the 
prairies  to  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States.  European  nations 
hostile  to  the  English  claimed  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi 
river  systems,  and  for  many  years  the  English  colonists  could  not 
use  those  water  ways. 

The  valley  of  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers  would  have  opened 
a way  to  the  Great  Lakes,  if  its  upper  part  had  not  been  held  by 
warlike  Indian  tribes.  Other  tribes  farther  south  also  held  the 
lands  a little  back  from  the  coast. 

At  length  the  year  1776  arrived,  and  with  it  came  great  changes 
in  the  colonies,  — then  thirteen  in  number.  Great  Britain  had 
long  made  the  colonists  pay  taxes  which  they  had  no  share  in 
imposing,  but  in  that  year  wise  and  brave  men  from  the  colonies 
met  in  Philadelphia  and  voted  that  their  land  should  no  longer  be 
under  British  rule.  After  a long  struggle,  known  as  the  Revolu- 


1 There  is  a map  of  the  United  States  on  page  126. 

2 Among  the  important  settlementa  made  by  colonists  of  nations  other 
than  the  British  were  the  following  : the  Dutch  along  the  Hudson  river ; 
the  Swedes  near  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  river  ; the  French  around 
Charleston.  S.  C. ; the  Spaniards  in  Florida. 


Mexico,  and  also  the  great  peninsula  of 
Alaska.  The  area  is  now  a little  more  than  3,550,000  square  miles. 

*When  the  struggle  for  freedom  was  over,  many  people 
moved  into  the  Alleghany  plateau  region  and  still  farther 
westward  along  the  river  branches.  After  a time  wagon 
roads  were  made  across  the  Appalachian  highland,  and 
later  came  the  Erie  canal  and  the  railroads.  Then  the 
growth  of  the  country  became  very  rapid,  especially 
when  the  prairies  were  reached  and  the  fertile  open  lands 
were  found  ready  for  millions  of  settlers.  Forts  and 
trading  stations  on  the  rivers,  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Erie 
canal  and  the  railroads,  soon  grew  to  towns  and  cities. 

While  the  upper  half  of  the  Mississippi  valley  was  thus 
being  settled,  a great  change  was  also  taking  place  in  the 


8 They  were  : New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecti- 
cut, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Mary  land,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 


124 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  PEOPLE.  — GOVERNMENT. 


led  to  the  settling  of  California;  but 
products  of  far  greater  value  are  now 
taken  from  the  grainfields,  the  vineyards, 
the  fruit  groves  and  the  pastures  of  that 
state.  Silver  and  gold  have  also  been 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  western  higli- 
land,  and  towns  and  cities  have  grown  up 
in  many  places  near  the  rich  mines. 

In  1776  the  population  of  the  United 
States  was  less  than  3,000,000.  Now  it  is 
about  70,000,000,  — nearly  one  twentieth 
of  the  total  population  of  the  world. 

The  rapid  growth  of  our  country  has 
been  largely  due  to  the  great  number  of 
immigrants  who  have  come  from  Europe, 
— mainly  from  the  British  Isles,  Germany, 
Italy  and  Russia.1 


Southern  plains.  Thousands  of  acres  were  planted  with 
cotton,  and  the  region  was  very  rapidly  growing  in 
wealth  and  population. 

Until  about  a eentury  ago,  cotton  fiber  was  separated  by  hand 
from  the  seeds.  This  was  slow  work,  for  a person  could  pick  only 
about  a pound  of  fiber  in  a day.  The  price  of  cotton  was  therefore 
high,  and  poor  people  could  not  afford  to  use  much  cotton  cloth. 


About  fifty  years  ago,  gold  was  discovered  in  California, 
and  many  thousand  people  flocked  there  in  searcli  of  for- 
tunes.  Sorne  toiled  across  the  dry  Western  plains  and  the 
Rocky  Mouptain  highland.  Others  reached  the  gold 
fields  by  way  of  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  — going  by  water 
to  and  from  that  neck  of  land.  Shiploads  of  gold-seekers 
went  round  Cape  Horn  and  thence  up  the  Pacific  coast  to 
San  Francisco.  Gold  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 


Note.  — The  dots  on  the  above  map  show  the  location  of  cities  and  large  towns.  The  largest  cities  are  indicated 
by  the  largest  dots.  The  star  on  the  map  shows  the  center  of  population  according  to  latest  census. 


At  length  a machine  was  made  to  separate  the  fiber  from  the 
seeds.  The  machine  was  called  a cotton  engine,  — now  shortened  to 
cotton  gin.  It  has  saw-teeth  that  draw  the  fibers  through  slits  too 
narrow  to  admit  the  seeds.  A large  cotton  gin  can  clean  a thou- 
sand pounds  of  cotton  in  a day. 

Before  the  cotton  gin  was  invented,  machines  had  been  made 
for  spinning  or  twisting  fibers  into  thread  and  for  weaving  the 
thread  into  cloth.  There  was  a large  and  growing  demand  for 
cotton.  The  new  machine  made  it  possible  to  supply  this  fiber 
without  great  expense  and  thus  led  to  the 
planting  of  cotton  in  all  the  states  of  the 
Southern  plains.  Cotton  has  for  many 
years  been  the  leading  crop  in  that  region. 

Soon  after  the  first  English  colo- 
nists  came  to  this  country,  they  re- 
ceived  a cargo  of  slaves  from  Africa. 

Slavery  spread  with  the  growth  of 
the  country,  but  the  slaves  proved 
to  be  of  greatest  service  in  the  cot- 
ton and  the  tobacco  fields  of  the 

Market  in  “ Chinatown, 


Wliich  coast  of  the  United  States  is  the  most 
thickly  settled  ? Why  ? 

Which  has  the  greater  population,  — the  prairie  region  or  the 
western  highlands  ? What  part  of  our  country  is  the  most  thickly 
settled  ? Why  ? 

Where  are  the  cities  larger,  — on  the  Great  Lakes  or  on  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  ? Which  part  of  the  Mississippi  basin  is  the  most 
thickly  settled  ? Why  ? 

Why  are  there  so  few  cities  or  towns  on  the  Western  plains  ? In 
the  Great  Basin?  On  the  Columbia  plateau?  On  the  Colorado 
plateaus?  In  the  great  peninsula  of  Alaska? 

Let  us  now  learn  how  our  nation  is 
governed. 


South.  The  invention  of  the  cotton 
gin  created  a great  demand  for  slave  labor  in  the  cotton 
fields,  and  people  of  the  black  race  were  brought  in  ship- 
loads from  Africa. 

At  length  all  the  slaves  in  our  country  were  set  free, 
and  most  of  them  made  their  hornes  on  the  Southern 
plains  where  they  had  worked  and  where  many  of  them 
had  been  bom.  One  tenth  of  the  people  in  the  United 
States  are  Negroes. 


San  Francisco. 


125.  Government. 

The  highest  law  of  the  nation  is 
known  as  the  Constitution  of  tlie 
United  States.  This  written  law,  or 
body  of  laws,  was  adopted  in  Phila- 
delphia, in  1787, 2 by  men  chosen 
from  the  thirteen  states.  It  has 
since  received  several  additions,  or 
amendments. 

The  Constitution  outlines  the  form  of  our  government ; names 
the  various  offices ; indicates  how  the  offices  are  to  be  filled  ; defines 
the  authority  of  the  officers  ; limits  the  power  of  the  law-makers  ; 
provides  for  a Supreme  Court  to  decide  questions  that  may  arise  as 
to  the  powers  of  the  national  government ; and,  in  general,  forms 
the  highest  law  of  the  land. 

1 There  are  also  about  100,000  Chinese  in  the  United  States.  Their 
largest  colony  is  in  San  Francisco. 

2 The  Constitution  went  into  effect  on  March  4,  1789. 


GOVERNMENT. 


125 


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Winnij 


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Bi. Louis" 


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north 

AMERICA 


JAMAICi 


8CALE  OF  MILE8 


COMPARATIVE  AREA 


PE'H^SYLVANI> 
■ 45,000  , 

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THI8  RECTATOLE  COnt A(n8 
IOOjOOO  SQUARE  MILES 


The  chief  duty  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  to  protect  the 
rights  of  the  people,  according  to  the  Constitution. 

All  rights  that  the  states  did  not  give  to  the  nation, 
under  the  Constitution,  they  reserved  for  themselves. 
There  are  now  forty-five  states,  and  each  resembles  a 
republic.  Each  has  its  constitution,  its  Senate  and  House 


The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  consists  of  a 
Chief  Justice  and  eight  Associate  Justices  appointed  by 
the  President,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  holding 
office  for  life  or  during  good  behavior. 


The  law-making,  or  legislative,  department  of  the  United 
States  is  known  as  Congress.  It  consists  of  two  bodies, 
— the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 

The  representatives  are  chosen  by  the  people.  The  senators  are 
chosen  by  the  law-making 


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Greenwich 


Longit-uffis 


West 


bodies,  or  legislatures,  in 
the  various  states.  There 
are  two  senators  from 
each  state,  but  the  repre- 
sentatives are  chosen  ac- 
cording to  the  number 
of  people  in  each  state. 

Senators  are  elected  to 
serve  for  six  years ; 
representatives,  for  two 
years. 

The  head  of  the 
nation  is  called  the 
President.  He  is 
elected  to  serve  for 
four  years,  and  his 
chief  duty  is  to  enforce 
or  execute  the  laws. 

He  is  Commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United 
States. 

To  aid  in  conducting 
the  government,  the 
President  (with  the  ap- 
proval  of  the  Senate) 
appoints  eight  men  who 
are  known  as  members 
of  the  Cabinet.  These 
officers  superintend  the 
foreign  affairs,the  money, 
the  army,  the  navy,  the 
home  affairs,  the  law 
cases,  the  post  offices, 
and  the  agricultural  in- 
terests,  of  the  nation. 

With  the  President  is 
elected  a Vice-President 
who  presides  over  the 
Senate  and  who  succeeds 
to  the  office  of  President, 
if  it  becomes  vacant 
during  his  term. 

The  President  and 
Vice-President  are  gen- 
erally  chosen  by  electors 
who  are  elected  by  the 
people.  If  the  electors 
fail  to  agree,  the  national  House  of  Representatives  elects  a Pres- 
ident, and  the  Senate  elects  a Vice-President. 

A bill  becomes  a national  law  when  it  receives  the  consent  of 
a majority  of  each  body  of  law-makers  and  the  approval  of  the 
President.  If  the  President  disapproves  or  vetoes  a bill,  it  cannot 
become  a law  without  receiving  a two-thirds  vote  of  each  body,  — 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 


126 


Al  AP  STU  DIES. 


102  Longitude  97  West 


Grand 

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Delta  of 
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UXITED  STATES 


umugt 


AND  COAST  OF 

H1DDLB  ATLANTIC  STATES 

J «8 


b.  Charles 
.Henry 


107  Longitude 


West 


92  Greenwich 


of  Representatives,  its  Supreme  Court,  its  chief  executive 
officer  called  a Governor,  — as  well  as  other  officers. 

Some  portions  of  our  country  do  not  belong  in  any 
state,  but  are  known  as  territories.  Their  governors  and 
judges  are  appointed  by  the  President,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Senate,  but  the  people  of  each  territory  elect  their 
other  officers.  The  territories  have  also  their  own  legis- 
lative  bodies. 

There  are  now  fiye  territories,  as  follows  : Alaska,  Arizona, 
Indian  Territory,1  New  Mexico,  Oklahoma.  From  time  to  time,  as 
the  territories  increase  in  population,  they  are  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  states. 

The  city  of  Washington,  with  its  suburb  Georgetown, 
is  on  a tract  of  land  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  govern- 
ment. This  tract  is  known  as  the  District  of  Columbia. 
It  is  neither  a state  nor  a territory,  but  is  under  the  con- 
trol  of  Congress. 

1 Indian  Territory  differs  from  the  other  territories  in  not  having  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  President.  This  territory  has  been  set  apart 
as  a home  for  certain  tribes  of  Indians,  and  the  national  government  has 
little  to  do  with  it. 


Congress  meets  in  Washington,  the  Supreme  Court  sits  there, 
the  President  resides  in  that  city,  and  the  members  of  the  Cabinet 
have  their  offiees  there. 

The  United  States  has  grown  to  be  the  foremost  repub- 
lic  and  the  wealthiest  nation  in  the  world. 

126.  Map  Studies. 

Bound  the  United  States.  Bound  the  state  in  which  you  live. 

Which  states  border  on  the  Atlantic  ocean  ? Which  of  these 
states  contain  no  part  of  the  Coastal  plain  ? 

What  state  in  the  New  England  highland  has  no  seacoast? 
Where  are  the  White  mountains?  — The  Green  mountains  ? In 
which  states  does  the  piedmont  belt  reach  the  coast? 

Which  of  the  Great  Lakes  border  on  New  York  ? What  lake  is 
between  that  state  and  Vermont  ? 

Name  the  river  between  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey.  Which 
states  are  on  Delaware  bay  ? — On  Chesapeake  bay  ? Name  the 
states  which  border  on  Lake  Erie.  Which  are  separated  by  the 
Potomac  river  ? The  city  of  Washington  is  in  the  District  of 
Columbia ; on  what  rivér  is  it  built  ? 

What  states  are  grouped  around  the  Carolina  highland  ? Which 
of  these  are  partly  in  the  piedmont  belt  ? Between  what  states 


NEW  ENGLAND 


fon  cnlarged  tcale) 
SCALE  OF  MILES 


CLIMATE,  — TEMPERATURE. 


127 


Copyright,  1895,  by  Alox  E.  Frye.  Key  to  Reliei  Map  on  pages  34  and  35. 


does  the  Savannah  river  flow?  What  states  are  crossed  by  the 
divide  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  Coastal  plains  ? 

Xante  the  states  which  border  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  In  which 
of  these  is  the  Mississippi  delta?  What  river  separates  Texas 
from  Mexico  ? Between  which  of  the  Gulf  states  does  the  Missis- 
sippi river  flow  ? 

In  what  state  does  the  Mississippi  rise?  Xante  the  states  along 
the  east  bank  of  that  river  ; — along  the  west  bank.  Between 
what  states  does  the  Ohio  river  flow  ? Which  of 
these  states  are  wholly  or  in  part  in  the  Alleghany 
plateau  ? 

Xame  the  states  which  border  on  Lake  Mich- 
igan ; on  Lake  Superior.  Which  of  the  Great 
Lakes  partly  surround  Michigan  ? Which  states 
are  partly  in  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  and  partly 
in  the  Mississippi  basin  ? 

What  two  large  rivers  are  near  the  Southern 
and  western  borders  of  the  prairies  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  ? 

Which  states  are  partly  in  the  prairies  and 
partly  in  the  Western  plains  ? Which  states  are 
crossed  by  the  Rocky  mountains  ? 

Xame  the  two  states  that  are  almost  wholly  in 
the  Basin  region.  What  three  states  include  the 
Columbia  plateau  region  ? What  states  are  crossed 
by  the  Cascade  range  ? In  which  state  is  the 
Sierra  Xevada  ? Xame  the  states  lying  along  the 
Pacific  coast  ? 

Which  states  border  on  Canada  ? Which  states 
and  territories  are  next  to  Mexico  ? Xame  two 
territories  crossed  by  the  Arkansas  river. 

Which  is  the  largest  state  in  our  country  ? 


What  bodies  of  water  partly  surround  Alaska  ? What  country 
is  on  the  east  of  that  territory  ? Where  are  the  Pribilof  islands  ? 

127.  Climate,  — Temperature. 

What  beits  of  heat  cross  the  United  States  ? How  do  the 
seasons  on  the  land  in  these  beits  differ  from  the  seasons  over 
the  oceans  on  the  east  and  west  ? See  lesson  26. 


CHART  A.  — The  above  map  shows  that  the  greatest  difference  between  January  and 
July  temperature  is  found  on  the  northern  part  of  the  prairies  and  Western  plains.  There  is 
less  difference  along  the  Southern  boundary  and  western  coast. 


128 


CLIMATE,  — TEMPERATURE. 


At  about  what  part  of  the  distance  from  the  equator  to  the 
pole  is  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  ? — The  middle  of  Lake 
Huron  ? What  does  this  show  about  the  location  of  our  country  ? 


Our  country  lies  between  the  steady  heat  of  the  equa- 
torial  regions  and  the  extreme  seasons  of  the  polar  cap. 

From  winter  to  summer,  the  change  in  the  length  of  day  and 
the  strength  of  sunshine  makes  a great  change  in  temperature  over 
our  country,  but  greater  in  the  north  than  in  the  south.  In  winter 
the  rivers  and  most  of  the  lakes  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States  are  frozen ; the  snow-caps  of  the  mountains  reach  far  down 
into  the  valleys,  and  even  the  lowlands  are  sheeted  over  with 
snow  that  spreads  farther  south  as  the  winter  season  advances. 

As  the  days  lengthen  and  the  sunshine  becomes 
stronger,  the  snow  and  ice  melt  away.  Plant  and 
animal  activity  begin  again. 

In  what  part  of  our  country  is  the  change  of 
temperature  from  January  to  July  the  greatest  ? 

See  chart  A,  page  127. 

The  change  from  winter  cold  to  summer 
heat  in  our  northern  interior  is  very  great 
for  three  reasons : first,  — the  winter  sun  is 
low  and  the  daylight  short,  but  the  summer 
sun  is  high  and  the  daylight  long ; second, — 
the  temperature  of  the  land  surface  changes 
much  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  sea  sur- 
face; third, — although  the  Coastal  regions 
feel  the  tempering  effect  of  winds  from 
over  the  sea,  yet  the  far-inland  regions 
do  not  feel  that  effect,  not  only  because  the 
land  is  so  broad,  but  also  because  high 
mountains  lie  along  the  western  side  in 
the  path  of  the  westerly  winds. 


Although  the  winters  in  this  district  are  so  severe,  the  tempera- 
ture rises  rapidly  in  spring.  There  the  long  days  of  summer  ripen 
great  crops  of  wheat  even  northward  in  Canada.  Cattle  that  can 
barely  survive  the  winter  climate  find  abundant 
pasturage  in  summer  on  the  grassy  plains.  The 
uoonday  heat  may  then  reach  90°  or  100°,  even  at 
our  northern  boundary. 

What  is  the  difference  of  temperature  between 
the  Gulf  coast  and  the  northern  part  of  Minnesota 
in  January  ? — In  July  ? See  chart s B and  C. 

The  contrast  of  temperature  between  our 
Southern  and  northern  boundaries  is  very 
strong  in  winter,  but  slight  in  summer. 
Many  plants  that  live  only  through  the 
warm  season  thrive  from  the  Gulf  to  the 
Great  Lakes,  but  longer-lived  plants  that 
cannot  survive  cold  winters  are  found  only 
in  the  south. 

The  range  of  temperature  from  summer 
to  winter  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  small  (see 
cliart  A),  because  the  westerly  winds  from 
over  the  broad  Pacific  temper  the  climate. 
They  are  warmer  than  the  land  in  winter, 
but  cooler  in  summer.  As  these  westerly 
winds  blow  across  our  country,  they  gradually  take  the 
temperature  of  the  land  over  which  they  move.  Thus 
they  carry  the  great  heat  of  summer  or  the  severe  cold 
of  winter  out  from  the  interior  to  the  east  coast.  The 
changes  of  seasons  on  this  coast  are  much  stronger  than 
on  the  western  coast. 

The  great  difference  of  temperature  between  the  northern  and 
Southern  parts  of  our  Atlantic  coast  is  partly  the  effect  of  the  ocean 


CHART  C.  — The  greatest  cold  is  in  the  northern  interior.  The  warmer  regions  are  the 
western  coast,  the  Southern  boundary,  and  the  southeastern  coast. 


CHART  B.  — The  greatest  heat  reaches  northward  in  the  middle  of  the  country.  The 
cooler  regions  are  along  the  northern  boundary,  on  the  mountains,  and  along  the  western  coast. 


During  the  long  winter  nights  in  the  north-central  part  of  our  currents.  Off  this  coast  the  warm  Gulf  stream  and  the  cold  polar 
country,  when  the  calm  dry  air  rests  on  the  broad  sheet  of  snow,  the  or  Labrador  current  approach  each  other  and  tend  to  bring  unlike 
temperature  may  fall  to  40°  or  50°  below  zero.  In  extreme  cold,  temperatures  together.  The  effect  is  felt  on  the  coast  whenever  the 
spirit  thermometers  are  used;  for  mercury  freezes  at  39°  below  zero.  winds  blow  inland.  No  polar  current  reaches  our  western  coast. 


CLIMATE,  — WINDS  AND  RAINFALL. 


129 


128.  Climate,  — Winds  and  Rainfall. 

Although  winds  from  some  westerly  point  prevail  at 
most  places  in  our  country,  yet  their  direction  is  variable. 


How  do  you  account  for  the  light  rainfall  on  the  Western  plains? 
See  lessoii  50.  What  body  of  water  supplies  most  of  the  moisture 
for  the  rainfall  of  the  prairies  ? See  Lesson  51.  In  what  season 
does  the  greatest  amount  of  rain  fall  there  ? 


CHART  D The  general  distribution  of  rainfall  for  these  seasons  is  the  same  as  that 
for  the  year  ; but  the  northwestern  coast  has  less  than  half  its  total  rainfall  during  these 
seasons,  while  the  southeastern  coast  and  much  of  the  Mississippi  valley  have  more  than  half. 


They  generally  blow  more  from  the  land  to  the  sea  in 
winter,  and  more  from  the  sea  to  the  land  in  summer. 
See  charts  on  page  24.  The  winds  change  their  direction 
and  strength  also  with  every  passing  storm-eddy.  See 
cliart  on  page  28. 

Smoke  from  forest  fires  commonly  spreads  eastward.  Clouds, 
espeeially  the  higher  ones,  generally  drift  from  some  western  point. 
Thunderstorms  usually  travel  from  west  to  east. 

Even  the  great  eddying  storms  move  eastward. 

The  variable  winds  which  we  feel  are  chiefly  in 
the  lower  layers  of  the  air. 

The  winds  of  the  eddying  storms  are  seldom 
destructive  on  the  land.  They  are  of  great  service 
in  bringing  most  of  our  rainfall.  On  the  sea  and 
the  lakes,  however,  they  are  stronger  and  cause 
many  shipwrecks.  The  form  and  movement  of 
these  storms  is  well  shown  on  the  daily  weather 
maps  issued  by  the  national  Weather  Bureau.  The 
changes  in  weather  which  the  storms  produce  are 
generally  predicted.  In  ports,  signals  are  hoisted 
to  warn  sailors  of  coming  gales. 

As  winds  become  cool,  cloudy  and  wet  when 
they  ascend  mountain  slopes,  so  they  become 
warm,  clear  and  dry  when  they  descend  the  lee- 
ward  slopes.  For  this  reason,  a mild  dry  wind 
called  the  chinook  is  often  felt  in  winter  on  the 
plains  along  the  eastern  base  of  our  northern 
Rocky  mountains.  The  chinook  is  of  great  service 
in  drying  away  the  snow  so  that  the  cattle  can 
find  grass. 

In  what  season  is  the  rainfall  heaviest  on  the 
western  coast  of  the  United  States  ? Why  is  the  rainfall  of  the 
Great  Basin  so  light  ? What  have  you  learned  about  the  rivers 
and  lakes  of  this  region  ? See  lesson  87. 


The  northern  part  of  the  western  coast  is 
well  watered,  for  it  is  one  of  the  coasts 
where  the  storms  of  the  westerly  winds 
come  directly  from  the  ocean  to  the  moun- 
tainous  land. 

The  Southern  part  of  our  western  coast 
is  one  of  the  dry  regions  where  the  westerly 
winds  branch  towards  the  trade  winds. 

The  western  interior  of  our  country 
generally  has  less  than  twenty  inches  of 
rainfall  in  .a  year,  except  on  the  mountains. 
Agriculture  in  much  of  this  region  is  there- 
fore  uncertain,  unless  aided  by  irrigation. 
The  northern  part  has  the  most  rainfall. 
See  charts  I)  and  E. 

Over  the  eastern  half  of  our  country,  the 
yearly  rainfall  is  everywhere  more  than 
twenty  inches.  It  is  least  along  the  border 
of  the  dry  Western  plains,  and  thence 
increases  to  over  fifty  inches  towards  the 
sea  on  the  south  and  east.  The  rainfall  is  heaviest 
where  the  moist  winds  from  over  the  warm  gulf  of  Mexico 
blow  ashore  on  the  Southern  Coastal  plain,  and  also  where 
they  ascend  the  Carolina  highland. 

One  great  advantage  in  the  climate  of  the  eastern  half 
of  our  country  is  the  even  distribution  of  its  rainfall 
throughout  the  year.  There  is  no  long  dry  season,  and 


drouths  are  seldom  severe  enough  to  cause  great  loss. 

Far  inland  where  the  rainfall  is  least,  more  than  half 
the  rain  falls  in  the  warm  season  when  it  is  most  needed. 


CHART  E The  regions  of  heaviest  rainfall  are  in  the  eastern  half  of  our  country  and 

near  the  northwestern  coast.  The  mountains  have  more  rainfall  than  the  lower  lands  in  the 
same  region. 


130 


COTTON. 


90  Greenwich 


IOWA 


EANS. 


’ 


COTTO^ 


C0TT0N 


MASUFACTUBE 


In  Florida  the  rainfall  is  greatest  in  summer,  when  the 
sea-winds  blow  toward  the  warm  land.  In  winter  the 
winds  tend  to  flow  outward  from  the  cold  interior.  The 
rainfall  of  our  eastern  coast  is  therefore  doubly  unlike 
that  of  the  western  coast.  On 
the  former,  the  amount  decreases 
from  south  to  north,  with  the 
heaviest  rains  in  summer. 

On  the  western  coast,  the 
amount  of  rainfall  increases 
from  south  to  north, 
with  the  heaviest 
rains  in  winter.  See 
chcirts  D and  E. 


long  and  strong. 


129.  Cotton.1 

What  lands  that  we  have 
studied  produce  cotton? 

See  lessons  53,  54,  73  and 
88.  Which  heat  belt 
crosses  each  of  those  lands  ? 

Is  it  a wet  or  a dry  country? 

Where  is  the  cotton  belt  of 
the  United  States  ? Describe 
its  surface.  What  regions  are 
partly  included  in  the  tinted  area  of 

the  Cotton  map  ? What  are  the  seasons  of  this  cotton  belt  ? 
From  over  what  part  of  the  sea  do  its  rain-bearing  winds  blow  ? 

Name  some  of  the  other  produets  of  the  cotton  district  of  our 
country.  See  lessons  53  and  54-  Tell  some  of  the  uses  of  cotton. 


Hoisting 
Cotton 
to  a 

Cotton  Gin. 


Cotton  requires  a very  long  warm  season 
to  ripen  its  seeds  and  thus  produce  the  fibers 
upon  them.  For  this  reason,  the  cotton  areas 
are  found  in  the  hot  and  the  warm  beits,  but  only  in  the 
parts  having  plentiful  rains. 

1 The  reddish  tint  on  the  above  Cotton  map  outlines  the  district  known  as 
the  cotton  belt  of  the  United  States.  The  darker  the  tint,  the  larger  the  yield. 


The  best  grade  of  cotton  grows  on  the  low  sandy  islands 
along  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  This  is 
known  as  Sea-island  cotton.  It  has  fine  fibers  that  are 
Most  of  the  Sea-island  cotton  is  sent  to 
the  mills  of  England,  to  be 
woven  in  to  cloth. 

After  cotton  is  picked  from  the 
plants,  it  is  put  into  cotton  gins  to 
separate  the  fibers  from  the  seeds. 
The  fibers  are  then  pressed  into  bales 
and  are  ready  for  market.  This  is 
the  raw  cotton  from  which  thread  and 
cloth  are  made. 

A valuable  oil  is  pressed  from  the 
seeds  of  cotton.  This  is  known  as 
cotton-seed  oil.  It  is  used  in  making 
soap  and  other  articles.  Much  of  the 
‘ oil  is  refined  and  sold  under  the  name 
of  “ olive  oil,”  but  the  real  olive  oil  is 
made  from  the  olive  fruit. 

The  oil-cake  which  remains  after  the  oil  is  pressed  from  cotton 
seeds  is  fed  to  cattle. 

Texas  and  Georgia  lead  all  other  states  in  the  quantity 
of  cotton  produced.  The  chief  ports  through  which  cotton 
is  sent  to  foreign  lands  are  New  Orleans  and  New  York. 
Most  of  it  goes  to  England,  Germany  and  France. 

Savannali,  Ga. ; Galveston,  Tex. ; Norfolk,  Va. ; and  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  have  a large  export  trade  in  cotton. 

The  great  centers  of  cotton  manufacture  in  the  United 
States  are  the  numerous  cities  and  towns  in  the  northeast 
part.  See  tinted  area  on  tlie  map. 

The  fine  water  power  gave  this  portion  of  the 
Union,  especially  New  England,  an  early  start  in 
manufacturing.  There  the 
rivers,  when  cutting 
through  gravel  beds  in 
their  valleys,  have  reached 
rocky  ledges  and  have 
therefore  formed  falls  or 
rapids.  See  lesson  45.  Steam 
has  now  largely  taken  the 
place  of  water  power,  but 
hundreds  of  mills  with 
their  skilled  workmen  and 
costly  looms  still  hold  the 
cloth-making  industry 
chiefly  to  this  district. 


Fall  River  and 
Lowell  ( see  map , page 
143)  make  more  cotton 
cloth  than  any  other 
two  cities  in  America. 
New  York  and  Boston 
the  raw  cotton  used  in  tlie  great  cloth- 
Many  cotton  mills  are  now  running  in 


handle  much  of 
making  states, 
the  cities  of  the  South,  and  the  outlook  is  very  bright  for 
a thriving  industry  there. 


WHEAT. 


131 


The  United  States  ranks  first  in  the  production  and 
export  of  cotton.  About  one  third  of  the  crop  is  used  in 
the  mills  of  our  own  country,  but  raw  cotton  to  the  value 
of  about  $250,000,000  is  exported  annually  from  the 
United  States.  Tliree  fifths  of  the  quantity 
go  to  the  mills  of  Great  Britain.  A large 
part  of  the  rest  goes  to  Germany  and 
France.  India 1 and  Egypt  send  large 
amounts  to  European  countries. 

England  leads  in  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  cloth.  The  United  States  holds 
second  place,  and  Germany  third.  Our 
country  imports  tine  grades  of  cotton  cloth 
from  England,  Germany  and  France. 


Brooklyn,  — every  great  city  has  extensive  flouring  mills. 
Chicago  and  the  other  large  lake  ports  handle  hundreds 
of  shiploads  of  wheat  each  year.  The  wheat  crop  of  the 
valley  of  California,  either  in  the  form  of  grain  or  of 


130.  Wheat. 


There  are  several  kinds  of  wheat.  Some  thrive 
in  scanty  soil ; others,  in  deep  alluvial  soil.  Some 
grow  best  in  hot  lands  ; others,  in  cooler  climates. 

For  this  reason,  wheat  is  a wide-spread  grain.  It 
has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times,  and  is 
thought  to  be  native  to  Asia. 

The  wheat  seed  consists  of  a grain  inside  a tliin 
husk.  “ The  inner  part  of  the  grain  is  used  in  mak- 
ing  fine  white  fiour,  but  the  entire  grain  makes  wholesome  though 
darker  fiour. 

Wheat  is  hardier  than  corn,  — not  being  so  easily  in- 
jured  by  frost  or  by  cool  weather.  For  this  reason  the 
cooler  prairies,  extending  far  northward  even  into  Canada, 
yield  immense  crops  of  wheat  but  scarcely  any  corn. 
Moreover,  wheat  thrives  in  the  warmer  prairies  and  is  a 
valuable  product  as 
far  south  as  Texas. 

Among  the  best 
wheat  regions  in  our 
country  are  the  follow- 
ing  : the  northern  prai- 
ries in  Minnesota  and 
the  Dakotas ; the  district 
lying  between  the  Ohio 
river  and  the  Great 
Lakes  and  stretching 
Southwest  into  Kansas ; 
the  valley  of  California ; 
the  states  between  Lake 
Erie  and  the  mouth  of 
Chesapeake  bay. 

Minneapolis  has 
the  largest  fiour 
mills  in  the  world. 

Among  American 
cities,  St.  Louis  ranks  next  to  Minneapolis  in  the  produc- 
tion of  Hour.  Along  the  water  way  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
the  Erie  canal  and  the  Hudson  river,  — from  Chicago  to 


fiour,  passes  chiefly  through  San  Francisco  ; and  this  city 
ranks  second  in  the  Union  in  the  export  of  tliese  products. 
New  York1  ranks  first,  and  Baltimore  third. 

The  United  States  leads  the  rest  of  the  world  in  the 
production  of  this  important  cereal.  France.  India  and 
Russia  also  produce  very  large  crops. 

Wheat  and  fiour  rank  next  in  value  to  cotton  as  ex- 

ports  from  the  Un  ited 
States.  Like  cotton 
and  corn.  they  find 
a foreign  market 
chiefly  in  the  British 
Isles.  France  and 
Belgium  also  buy 
many  shiploads  of 
our  wheat. 

131.  Indian  Corn. 

Indian  corn  does  not 
thrive  in  places  having 
late  spring  frosts  or  cold 
summer  nights.  The 
growing  plant  is  quickly 
killed  by  frost,  and  cold 
nights  greatly  hinder 
the  growth  of  the  grain. 
Moreover,  if  the  summer 
season  is  very  rainy  or  foggy,  the  corn  is  liable  to  mold. 

Corn  is  wide-spread  over  the  eastern  half  of  our 
country,  except  in  the  marshy  or  sandv  lands  along  the 


1 In  India,  cotton  cloth  was  made  by  hand  for  fully  2000  years  before 
America  was  settled  by  white  people. 


1 Whenever  the  commerce  of  New  York  is  inentioned,  we  should  not  for- 
get  that  Brooklyn  and  Jersey  City  form  parts  of  the  port  of  New  York. 


132 


OATS,  BARLEY  AND  RYE. 


Longitude  106  West 


i)0  Greenwich 


00  Greenwich 


TOBACCO 


gulf  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  extreme  north  where  early 
frosts  are  common  or  where  there  are  dense  forests.  The 
best  region  for  the  growth  of  corn  is  in  the  Southern  half 

of  the  prai- 


When  the  early  white  settlers  came  to  America,  tliey 
found  here  a new  kind  of  grain  raised  by  the  Indians. 
The  white  men  gave  it  the  name  of  Indian  corn.  Since 
that  time  this  valuable  grain  has  spread  to  nearly  all  fer- 
tile  lands  having  long  and  hot  summer  weather. 

How  did  the  Indians  prepare  the  forest  lands  for  cornfields  ? 
See  lesson  98.  Why  was  it  necessary  to  kili  the  trees  ? 


132.  Oats,  Barley  and  Rye. 

Oats  are  not  native  to  America 
and  have  not  been  so  widely  sown 
in  our  country  as  corn  or  wheat. 


east  and 


west,  passing  between  the  cities  of  Chicago  and 
St.  Louis.  It  reaches  the  border  of  the  Alleghany 
plateau  on  the  east  and  the  great  plains  on  the 
west. 

Describe  the  seasons  in  this  corn  belt.  What 
winds  bring  most  of  the  rainfall  to  the  region? 
ro  ATS  Corn  meal  is  widely  used  in  cooking,  and  is  a health- 

ful  and  nutritious  food.  When  the  grain  is  broken, 
hulled  and  boiled,  it  is  called  hominy.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country,  hulled  corn 
and  milk  form  a favorite  dish.  Green  corn,  or 
sweet  corn,  is  often  boiled  on  the  cob  and  is 
thus  used  for  food.  A large  amount  of 
sweet  corn  is  canned  for  market. 

Great  quantities  of  corn  are  used  to 
fatten  live  stock,  especially  hogs  and 
cattle.  There  is  more  live  stock  in  the 
corn  belt  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
United  States. 


Chicago  and  the  other  large 
lake  and  river  ports  serve  as  centers 
for  the  collection  and  distribution 
of  corn.  New  York  and  the  other 
great  eastern  seaports  carry  on  a 
large  foreign  trade  in  this  grain. 

The  United  States  supplies  the 
larger  part  of  the  corn  of  commerce. 
chiefly  to  the  British  Isles  and  Germany,  to  help  feed  the 
millions  of  people  in  the  workshops  of  those  countries. 


In  recent  years,  however,  the  crops  of  oats  have 
greatly  increased  and  are  now  very  valuable. 

Oats  are  much  hardier  than  corn,  — often  grow- 
ing  in  a poorer  soil  and  a colder  climate,  but  thriv- 
ing  also  in  the  fertile  prairies  and  still  farther 
south  in  the  Coastal  plains. 

In  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of 
the  world,  the  oat  crops  are  largest  in  about 
the  same  districts  that  produce  the  most 
wheat  and  corn.  Nearly  all  the  oats  ex- 
ported  from  our  country  are  sent  to 
England. 

Barley  and  rye  are  hardy  grains, 
but  they  do  not  take  a leading 
place  among  the  cereal  crops  of 
the  United  States.  Rye  is  an  impor- 
tant food-produet  in  Russia,  Germany 
and  other  parts  of  Europe. 


Corn  Harvest  in  the  Azores. 


This  grain  is  sent 


133.  Tobacco. 

The  tobacco  of  commerce  consists 
of  the  dried,  or  cured,  leaves  of 
several  species  of  plants.  Some  of  these  grow  to  the 
heiglit  of  six  feet  or  more  and  bear  large  coarse  leaves, 
on  their  simple  upright  stalks. 


FORESTS. 


133 


The  most  common  mode  of  curing  tobacco  is  as  follows : The 
tall  stalks  are  cut  off  elose  to  the  ground,  and  the  plants  are  tlien 
hung  up  to  dry  on  long  rods  in  the  curing  houses  or  in  the  fields. 

After  a time  the  leaves  are  stripped  from  the  stalks  and  are 
bound  in  small  bundles.  These  are  placed  in  heaps  on  the  floor  to 
ferment,  or  heat  slowly  till 
certain  clianges  take  place  in 
the  leaves.  They  are  then  ready 
to  be  made  into  cigars,  snuff  or 
other  tobacco  goods. 

The  chief  tobacco  districts 
in  the  United  States  are  the 
Ohio  river  valley,  the  pied- 
mont  slopes  east  of  the  Blue 
ridge,  the  district  Crossing 
from  Lake  Ontario  to  Chesa- 
peake  bay,  and  the  Connec- 
ticut river  valley.  Lumber  Camp  in  Maine. 

Louisville  is  a famous  tobacco  market.  New  York, 

St.  Louis  and  Richmond  are  great  manufacturing 
centers  for  tobacco  goods.  All  the  gold  mined  yearly1  in 
our  country  would  not  pay  for  the  cigars  and  cigarettes 
made  in  New  York  alone. 

The  United  States  raises  more  tobacco  than  any  other 
country.  India,  Hungary,  Russia,  and  both  the  East  and 
the  West  Indies  supply  large  quantities  of  tobacco. 

Our  country  has  a large  export  trade  in  leaf  tobacco. 
Immense  quantities  are  sent  through  the  ports  of  New 
York  and  Baltimore  to  the  manufacturing  countries  of 
western  Europe. 

134.  Forests. 

Only  a few  trees 
grow  on  the  W estem 
plains  or  in  the  Basin 
region  of  ou r country, 
because  the  rainfall 
there  is  so  light. 

Large  areas  in  the 
prairies  are  treeless, 
but  trees  grow  wild 
in  the  lowlands  along 
the  rivers,  and  many 
have  also  been  plant- 
ed  wherever  the  land 
is  settled. 

The  soil  in  most  parts 
of  the  prairies  is  very 
fine  and  compact.  Such  soil  is  not  so  well  suited  to  forests  as  the 
looser  soil  of  highlands  or  of  moist  sandy  plains.  Fine  dark  soil, 
like  that  of  the  prairies,  is  found  in  the  treeless  plains  of 
Southern  Russia. 

The  eastern  half  of  our  country,  except  portions  of  the 
prairies,  is  quite  heavily  wooded  and  yields  lumber  of 
many  kinds.  The  forests  around  the  upper  three  of  the 

1 The  annual  yield  of  gold  is  about  thirty  million  dollars. 


Great  Lakes  consist  mostly  of  pine,  spruce  and  maple,  but 
other  kinds  of  trees  also  abound  there. 

In  the  autumn,  bands  of  lumbermen  go  into  these  forests,  locate 
camps,  lay  out  roads,  clear  snags  from  the  streams,  and  thus  make 
ready  for  the  work  of  getting  out  logs  or  timber. 
All  through  the  winter,  trees  are  felled  and 
then  chopped  or  sawed  into  logs  of  the 
proper  length.  These  are  hauled  to  the 
banks  of  streams  and  there  piled 
up  to  await  the  time  of  the  spring 
thawing. 

When  the  streams  are 
flooded  and  free  from  ice, 
the  logs  are  floated  down 
to  the  mills  and  there 
sawed  into  lumber,  such 
as  boards,  joists,  beams 
and  planks. 

Which  states  are  in 
the  lumber  region  around  the 
upper  three  of  the  Great  Lakes  ? 
See  the  darker  shading  on  the  map. 
What  other  valuable  products  are 
found  near  Lake  Superior  ? See  lesson  Jf 9. 

Streams  from  this  great  forest  region  flow  to  Minneap- 
olis, and  that  city  has  grown  to  be  a great  lumber  market. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  barrels  are  made  there  each 
year  to  hold  the  flour  which  the  mills  produce.  Several 
branches  enter  the  Mississippi  below  this  city  and  float 
logs  down  to  the  mills  in  many  other  river  ports. 

Numerous  saw- 
mills  are  located  on 
the  small  logging 
rivers  which  flow 
from  the  forests  into 
the  Great  Lakes. 
These  mills  supply 
lumber  to  the  ports 
on  the  lakes.  Chicago 
has  become  one  of 
the  leading  lumber 
markets  in  theworld. 

Many  cities  in  the 
lake  region  manu- 
facture  furniture. 
Among  these  Chicago 
and  Grand  Rapids 
rank  highest. 

The  soft-wood 
forest  belt  extends  eastward  across  New  York  and  New 
England.  This  eastern  portion  has  long  been  famous 
for  its  lumber.  Bangor  has  grown  to  be  a great  lumber 
market. 

This  city  is  located  on  the  Penobscot  river,  whose  branches  reach 
far  into  the  forest  area,  and  whose  valley  has  been  slightly  drowned, 
making  the  stream  as  far  up  as  Bangor  navigable  by  large  sea-going 
vessels. 


134 


FORESTS.  — FRUITS. 


90  Greenwich 


FRUITS 


The  Appalachian  highland  is  forested  with  both  soft-  Large  quantities  of  grapes  grow  along  the  Southern 
wood  and  hard-wood  trees.  Forests  of  hard-wood  trees  shore  of  Lake  Erie  and  in  the  Mohawk  valley.  This 
abound  in  the  states  of  the  Ohio  basin.  fruit  is  sold  mostly  in  boxes  to  the  people  in  the  great 

eastern  cities.  The  grapes  of  California  are 
marketed  largely  in  the  form  of  raisins,  but 
great  quantities  of  the  grapes  are  pressed 
for  tlieir  juice  which  is  made  into  wine. 

Raisins  are  sun-dried  grapes.  The  curing  of 
the  fruit  requires  very  hot  and  dry  weather.  A 
few  days  Of  rain  in  the  curing  season  may  spoil  a 
year’s  crop.  California  is  noted  both  for  its  raisins 
and  its  grape  wines. 

Southern  California  and  Florida  have 
many  orange  and  lemon  groves.  These 
districts  supply  the  best  oranges  found  in 
our  markets. 


Most  of  the  lemons  and  oranges  imported  into 
the  United  States  come  from  Italy.  The  West 
Indies  and  Central  America  supply  bananas. 


KEY  TO  COLORSI  Peaches  j 


Oranges,  Lemons,  Apricots  11 


Apples,  Pears  f 


The  hard-wood  forests  in  the  states  which  border  on  the  Great 
Lakes  have  given  this  region  the  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  agri- 
cultural  implements,  carriages  and  wagons.  Great  forests  cover 
a large  portion  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  plains  and  extend 
far  into  Texas. 

What  have  you  read  about  the  forest  products  of  the  Atlantic 
Coastal  plain  ? See  lesson  5 Jf.  What  valuable  forest  trees  grow 
on  the  Gulf  Coastal  plain  ? See  lesson  53. 

What  kinds  of  lumber  are  sawed  in  the  mills  around  Puget 
sound  ? See  lesson  36.  Where  is  redwood  found  ? 

The  United  States  produces  more  lumber,  and  manu- 
factures  more  woodenware,  than  any  other 
country  in  the  world  does. 


136.  Horses,  Mules  and  Hogs. 

Grapes  £53  Horses  and  Mules.  Horses  were  first 

brought  to  America  by  Spanish  explorers.  These  useful 
animals  are  now  raised  in  nearly  all  grassy  portions  of  the 
New  World.  Mules  also  are  connnon  in  most  parts  of 
America,  but  chiefly  in  the  warmer  regions. 

Horses  and  mules  are  raised  in  greatest  numbers  in  the 
most  fertile  districts,  where  there  is  work  for  them  on  the 
farins.  There  are  about  one  third  as  many  horses  as 
cattle  in  our  country. 

Hogs.  Many  hogs  are  raised  in  every  state  in  the 
Union,  but  chiefly  in  the  districts  which  produce  the  most 


135.  Fruits. 

The  United  States  is  bountifully  supplied 
with  fruits.  Some  of  them  are  wide-spread, 
but  others  are  confined  to  small  areas.  The 
most  important  peach  area  in  this  country 
extends  along  the  Coastal  plain  from  the 
Potomac  river  to  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson 
river. 

This  peach  district  is  near  the  northern  end  of 
the  Atlantic  Coastal  plain.  There  the  canning,  pack- 
ing  and  shipping  of  fruit  form  a very  important 
industry.  What  state  lies  wholly  within  this  peach 
area  ? What  other  states  are  partly  within  it  ? 

There  are  several  well-known  apple 
areas.  One  extends  the  entire  length  of 
the  Ohio  valley  and  for  quite  a distance  up 
the  Missouri  valley.  The  districts  east  of  Lake  Michigan  corn.  This  grain  is  the  best  fattening-food  for  swine. 
and  south  east  of  Lake  Erie  are  famous  for  this  fruit.  Millions  of  bushels  are  used  yearly  for  that  purpose. 

It  abounds  also  in  all  the  states  eastward  to  Maine.  The  principal  pork-packing  centers  are  the  cities  of 
Pears  have  about  the  same  range  as  apples.  the  prairies,  especially  Chicago  and  Kansas  City  (Kansas). 


CATTLE  AND  DAIRY  PRODUCTS. 


135 


Immense  quantities  of  pork,  bacon  and  lard  are  sent 
abroad,  chiefly  to  England,  Germany  and  other  countries 
of  western  Europe.  The  pork  prodncts  sent  eacli  year 


The  hides  of  cattle  are  tanned  and  changed  into  leather.  One 
part  of  the  tanning  process  consists  in  soaking  the  hides  in  water 
in  which  certain  kinds  of  bark  have  been  steeped.  Hemlock  bark 
is  often  used,  and  as  hemlock  trees  abound 
in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Michigan  and 
the  northern  New  England  states,  most  of 
the  tanning  is  done  there. 


from  onr  country  to  England  alone  have  a higher  value 
than  all  the  gold  mined  here  in  the  same  time. 

The  United  States  produces  about  as  much  pork  as  is 
produced  in  all  Europe. 


What  are  some  of  the  -articles  made  of  leather  ? 


137.  Gattle  and  Dairy  Products. 

Cattle  are  not  native  to  any  part  of  America,  but  they 
now  thrive  in  great  numbers  on  the  prairies,  the  Western 
plains,  the  pampas,  the  campos  and  the  llanos,  — in 
short,  wherever  there  is  good  grass  land. 

There  are  many  cattle  in  every 
state  in  the  Union,  but  most  of 
them  are  on  the  prairies,  where 
grass  and  corn  are  plent if ul. 

Large  herds  graze  on  the  W estern 
plains. 

The  great  state  of  Texas  raises 
more  cattle  than  any  other  state  in 
onr  country.  Illinois  ranks 
second  ; but  in  proportion  to  size, 
this  state  ranks  first. 


å» 


Så 

I 

| 


As  the  population  of  the 
Western  plains  is  small, 
nearly  all  the  cattle  raised 
in  that  region  are  sent  to 
the  cities  farther  east,  — to 
Chicago  and  Kansas  City 
(Kansas),  where  the  beef  is 
dressed  for  market.  The 
prairies  are  more  thickly  settled,  and  the 
cattle  of  that  portion  of  the  country  are  therefore  mostly 
used  near  the  places  where  they  are  raised.  Chicago  has 
grown  to  be  the  largest  meat-market  in  the  world.1 


More  boots  and  shoes  are  made  in  Massachusetts  than 
in  any  other  state,  and  Boston  therefore  is  a leading 
leather  market.  Philadelphia  deals  largely  in  leather. 
Butter,  cheese  and  milk  are  known  as  dairy  products. 
New  York  ranks  first  among  the  dairy  states ; but  milk, 
butter  and  cheese  are  valuable  products  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  prairies,  as  well  as  in  the  states 
farther  east. 

The  United  States  exports  beef  and  cattle  of 
immense  value  to  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many. Large  quantities  of  dairy 
products  and  leather  also  are  ex- 
ported  to  the  same  countries. 

138.  Sheep. 

Wool  ranks  in  value  and 
usefulness  next  to  cotton  as 
! a cloth-making  fiber,  but  in 
j our  country  more  woolen 
than  cotton  cloth  is  made. 
1 All  the  gold  and  silver  ore 
l mined  each  year  in  the 
_ ^ United  States  would  not  pay 
for  one  third  of  the  woolen  cloth 
made  here  in  the  same  time. 


Beef  and  Dairy  Products. 


1 The  meat  products  of  this  city  have  a value  of  about  $200,000,000 
a year,  — or  twice  the  value  of  the  yearly  output  of  gold  and  silver  in 
our  entire  country. 


130 


FISHERIES. 


There  are  three  principal  districts  in 
which  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  raised. 

One  of  these  includes  the  northern  half  of 
the  Alleghany  plateau  and  extends  westward  over  the 
prairies ; another  is  in  Texas;  the  third  lies  west  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada. 

In  our  country  most  of  the  woolen  mills,  as  well  as 
the  cotton  mills,  are  in  New  England,  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania. 

Boston  is  a great  wool  market,  because  it  distributes 
this  fiber  to  the  mills  of  New  England.  In  the  manufacture 
of  woolen  carpets,  Philadelphia  ranks  first  in  the  world. 

In  the  production  of  wool  the  leading  regions  of  the  world  are 
eastern  Australia  and  New  Zealand ; the  La  Plata  basin  ; Great 
Britain  ; the  steppes  of  Russia  ; and  the  United  States. 

Our  country  nvust  import  wool  and  sheepskins,  because  it  uses 
more  than  it  produces  ; but  the  other  regions  export  these  products, 
— chiefly  to  Great  Britain,  Prance  and  Germany. 

139.  Fisheries. 

Oy sters.  Oysters  are  salt-water  shell  fisli  and  are 
the  most  valuable  food  product  taken  from  the 
shore  waters  of  the  United  States.  The 
most  extensive  oyster  fisheries  in  the  world 
are  carried  on  in  Chesapeake  bay.  Several 
thousand  boats  and  many  thousand 
men  are  there  employed.  Small  er 
oyster  beds  are  found  along  several 
other  parts  of  the  coast  of  our 
country. 

Baltimore  is  the  center  of 
the  oyster  trade. 

The  oyster  fisheries  are  scattered 
along  the  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to 
Mexico,  — wherever  the  sea-bottom 
is  finn.  Young  oysters  die  unless 


they  attach  themselves  to  hard  substances,  such 
as  shells,  pebbles  or  larger  stones. 

Chesapeake  bay  yields  about  four  times  as  many 
oysters  as  all  the  other  places  on  our  coasts. 

Many  of  the  oysters  are 
gathered  by  means  of  tongs 
having  long  handles.  In 
some  places,  dredges  are 
dragged  over  the  bottom 
to  gather  the  shellfish. 

In  the  oyster  fisheries, 
Erance  ranks  next  to 
the  United  States. 
Great  Britain  also  has 
extensive  oyster  beds. 

Cod  and  Haddock. 
The  cod  fisheries  rank 
next  in  importance  to 
the  oyster  fisheries. 
The  codfish,  and  also 
the  haddock  and  the 
halibut,  are  caught 
mostly  on  banks,  or  shoal  places  in  the  sea. 

Off  the  coast  of  North  America,  the  best  fishing  grounds  for  cod 
and  haddock  are  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  Georges  banks 
northeast  of  Cape  Cod.  The  halibut  is  found  in  about  the  same 
places  as  the  codfish.  The  former  is  the  largest  of  flatfish  and 
sometimes  weighs  a hundred  pounds. 

Other  Fish  and  Shellfish.  The 
clam  and  the  lobster  are 
found  along  the  sliores 
northward  from  Delaware 
bay.  Both  are  valuable 
food  products. 

Mackerel  migrate  north- 
ward along-  our  coasts 
in  spring,  and  south- 
ward  in  autumn. 

These  fisli 


arc 


FISHERIES.  — CO  AL. 


137 


caught  chiefly  in  large  nets  called  seines.  Eastern  mack- 
erel  are  taken  between  Cape  Hatteras  and 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

The  salmon  fisheries  are  a very  important 
industry  on  the  Pacific  coast,  northvvard 
from  San  Francisco  bay.  Fish  of  this 
kind  enter  the  rivers  to  spawn,  or  deposit 
their  eggs.  The  largest  salmon  can- 
neries  are  near  the  mouth  of  the  Co- 
lumbia and  along  the  coast  of  Alaska. 

The  following  table  shows  where  the  princi- 
pal  food  lishes  are  taken  or  caught  by  fisher- 
men  of  our  country.  The  fisheries  are  arrangecl  in  the  order  of 
value.  The  table  is  for  reference  only,  and  need  not  be  memorized. 

Atlantic  coast:  Oysters,  Cape  Cod  to  Mexico  ; codfish,  New  Jer- 


extends along  the 
The  second  begins 
of  Lake  Michigan 


Oysters  I 


Cod,  Clams,  Lobsters,  Mackerel,  Haddock  □ Salmon  "t  Sponges  lv.'.V  ‘ I Lake  Fish 


sey  to  the  banks  of  Newfoundland ; clams,  Chesapeake  bay  to 
Maine ; shad,  Florida  to  Maine ; lobsters,  Delaware  bay  to  New 
Brunswick ; mackerel,  Cape  Hatteras  to  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence;  haddock,  same  as  cod;  bluefish, 

Cape  Cod  to  Mexico ; alewives,  Georgia  to  gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence ; squeteague,  Cape  Cod  to  Mexico ; 
crabs,  Chesapeake  bay  to  Long  Island ; sponges, 

Florida ; menhaden,  North  Carolina  to  Maine ; 
mullet,  North  Carolina  to  Mexico  ; herring,  Mar- 
thas  Vineyard  to  Newfoundland;  striped  bass, 

North  Carolina  to  Rliode  Island;  Spanish  mack- 
erel, New  York  to  Mexico. 

Pacific  coast : Salmon,  San  Francisco  bay  to 
Alaska ; sea  bass  and  flatfish,  entire  west  coast 
of  our  country,  except  the  strait  of  Fuca.  The 
Pacific  coast  fisheries,  except  for  salmon,  have  not 
been  well  developed. 

Gr  eat  Lakes : Whitefish,  lake  herring,  lake 
trout,  in  all  the  lakes;  pike  perch,  in  lakes 
Ontario  and  Erie. 


In  the  United  States  there 
are  three  very  large  coal  fields 
and  many  small  ones.  The 

most  important  field 
Appalachian  highland. 
not  far  from  the  head  ^ 

and  reaches  slightly  beyond  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  rivers.  The  third  is  west  of 
the  second,  beyond  the  Mississippi  river. 

The  coal  beds  have  had  a remarkable  history. 
Each  bed  consists  of  the  remains  of  great  numbers 
of  plants,  — mostly  ferns  and  mosses.  Long  ages 
ago,  when  the  coal  regions  were  lowlands,  these 
plants  grew  in  broad  swamps.  A swamp  may 
have  continued  for  centuries  making  its  plant- 
layer  thicker  and  thicker,  until  buried  in  sand 
and  clay  that  were  washed  over  it. 

After  the  burial  of  one  swamp,  another  formed 
on  the  cover  of  sand  and  clay.  Successive  swamp- 
layers  were  thus  buried,  one  over  another.  When 
they  hardened,  the  layers  of  sand  became  sand- 
stone ; the  clay  changed  to  slate  or  shale ; and  the 
swamp  plants  formed  coal.  There  are  generally 
many  beds  of  coal  in  a single  coal  field,  showing 
that  swamps  formed  there  many  times.  Some  of 
the  coal  beds  are  only  a few  inches  thick  ; others  are  several  feet. 
Before  steam  engines  were  invented,  coal  was  not  very  valuable. 


Gloucester,  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts, 
is  the  greatest  fishing  port  in  the  Union. 


'90  Greenwich 


Longitude  105  West 


90  Greenwich 


IOWA 


IND.T  | 


'IJ?CTIC 


IKON 


IR0\  & STEEL 


MAKIJFACTURE 


138 


COAL.  — IRON. 


Pennsylvania,  at  the  nortkern  end  of  the  Appalachian 
coal  field,  supplies  more  tlian  one  half  the  coal  used  in  the 
United  States.  Illinois  ranks  second,  and  Ohio  third. 

Pennsylvania  furnishes  nearly  all  the  anthracite  coal  rninecl  in 
the  country,  as 
well  as  a large 
part  of  the  soft, 
or  bituminous, 
coal.  The  hard 
coal  is  found  near 
the  northern  end 
of  the  Alleghany 
ridges.  The  coal 
of  the  Illinois 
field  aided  great- 
ly  in  the  settle- 
ment  of  the 
prairies  where 
wood  was  scarce. 


141.  Iron. 

There  are  four  principal  iron  ore  districts  in  the  United 
States.  These  are  all  in  old  worn-down  mountain  regions. 
The  most  produetive  district  is  near  tlie  shores  of  Lake 

Superior.  The 
other  districts 
are  the  Alle- 
ghany ridges 
in  Pennsylva- 
nia; the  Adi- 
rondaek  moun- 
tains  in  New 
York;  and  the 
Southern  part 
of  the  Appala- 
chian liighland 
in  Alabama. 


Large  quan- 
tities  of  soft 
coal  are  put 

into  ovens  that  shut  out  most  of  the  air.  These  are 
lieated  till  certain  gases  are  driven  off  or  burned.  By 
this  process  the  coal  is  ckanged  to  coke,  which  is  better 
than  soft  coal  for  heating  purposes. 

Cliarcoal  is  made  by  burning  or  charring  wood  to  which 
very  little  air  has  access.  Cliarcoal  resembles  true  coal, 


but  the  former  is  mucli  the  lighter  and  the  more  porous. 

All  the  large  cities  in  or  near  the  coal  fields  are  im- 
portant markets  for  coal.  Among  the  cities  having  the 
largest  trade  in - this  produet  are  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg 
and  Chicago. 

Great  Britain,  Germany,  Austria,  France  and  Belgium 
have  extensive  coal  beds  and  iron  mines,  and  have  there- 
fore  tåken  a leading  place  among  the  manufaeturing 
countries  of  the  world. 


The  process  of 
extracting  iron 
from  its  ore  is 

called  smelting.  The  usual  mode  of  smelting  is  as  follows : The 
ore  and  coal,  with  some  limestone,  are  placed  in  a tall  furnace,  and 
the  coal  is  then  set  on  firé.1  A hot  blast  of  air  is  forced  through 
the  burning  mass  to  strengthen  the  fire.  As  the  iron  of  the  ore 
melts,  the  heavy  liquid  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  and  is 
drawn  off,  while  the  impure  matter,  or  slag.  floats  on  the  surface. 
The  furnace  through  which  the  blast  of  air  is  driven  is  known  as 
a blast  furnace.  The  molten  iron  is  usually  run 
into  molds  where  it  cools  in  short  bars  weighing 
about  one  hundred  pounds  each.  In  this  form  the 
metal  is  called  pig  iron,  and  is  ready  for  sliiyment 

to  the  foun- 
dries  where 
it  may  be  east 
into  the  form 
of  stoves,  hy- 
drants,  posts 
and  scores  of 
other  objeets. 

Iron  that 
is  to  be  used 
for  certain 
purposes  is 
put  through 
a series  of 
heating  pro- 
cesses  which 
change  it 
into  steel. 
This  is  used 
in  making 
rails,engines, 
steamships, 

cutlery,  tools  and  other  articles  that  must  withstand  a great  deal 
of  wear  and  strain,  or  that  must  take  keen  edges. 

The  iron  ore  of  the  Lake  Superior  district  is  plentiful 
and  pure.  It  is  therefore  so  valuable  that  it  competes 

1 In  Pittsburg  and  some  other  cities,  liatural  gas  is  used  for  fuel. 
Limestone  mixed  with  the  iron  ore  causes  it  to  fuse,  or  melt,  more  quickly. 


PETROLEUM  AND  NATUR  AL  GAS. 


139 


with  the  iron  ores  in  the  other  districts,  even  though 
heavy  freight  charges  must  be  paid  to  transport  it  great 
distances. 


Most  of  the  Lake  Superior  ore  is  carried  by  steamers  to  the 
various  lake  ports,  but 
part  is  sent  by  rail.  The 
lake  ports  use  only  about 
one  third  of  the  ore  in 
their  own  manufactures. 

The  rest  is  sent  to  inland 
cities,  mostly  in  the 
states  which  border  on 
the  Great  Lakes. 

A picture  on  the  op- 
posite  page  shows  some 
of  the  great  docks  built 
for  shipping  ore  from  the 
Lake  Superior  district. 

The  principal  iron 
manufacturing  cen- 
ters  are  in  the  north- 
east  quarter  of  the 
Union,  near  the  coal 
fields  and  the  iron 
mines.  Pittsburg 

and  the  cities  near  by  form  the  most  important  district. 
Chicago  and  other  lake  ports,  as  well  as  Philadelphia  and 
the  other  great  seaports  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  have  ex- 
tensive  iron  mills  and  foundries.  These  cities  manufacture 
almost  every  kind  of  article  made  of  iron  or  steel.  Among 
the  leading  articles  are  rails,  locomotives,  boilers.  hardware, 
cutlery,  and  armor  plates  for  steamships. 

The  United  States  leads  all  other  nations  in  the  production 
of  iron  ore.  Great  Britain  ranks  second ; Germany,  third. 

The  United  States  exports  iron  goods  to  Cuba,  Mexico  and  other 
American  countries,  as  well  as  to  England. 

Large  quantities  of  tinned  iron,  cutlery,  rails  and  other  steel  or  iron 
goods  are  imported  into  our  country  from  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 


When  petroleum  is  heated,  it  gives  off  successive  vapors  as  the 
liquid  becomes  hotter  and  hotter.  These  vapors  are  condensed  and 
then  form  gasoline,  naphtha,  benzine,  kerosene,  and  other  useful 
liquids.  Yaseline  is  made  from  the  residue  left  in  the  vats  after 
heating.  Lubricating  oils  and  paraffin  are  valuable  products  of 

petroleum. 


There  are  two  well- 
known  oil  fields  in 
the  world,  — one  in 
the  region  of  the  Cau- 
casus  mountains ; the 
other  in  the  northern 
poi-tion  of  the  Alle- 
ghany  plateau  and 
still  farther  westward 
in  Ohio.  The  Ameri- 
can oil  region  is  situ- 
ated  mainly  in  the 
upper  Ohio  basin.  It 
produces  most  of  the 
petroleum  used  in  the 
world. 


Pennsylvania  leads  the 
other  states  in  the  pro- 
duction of  crude  oil.  OJiio  ranks  second.  About  six  sevenths  of 
the  oil-yield  of  the  Union  comes  from  these  two  states.  New  York, 
West  Virginia,  Colorado  and  California  have  valuable  wells. 

Among  the  great  cities 
which  refine  large  quantities 


142.  Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas. 


Crude  petroleum  comes  in  a liquid  state  from  the  ground. 

Petroleum  is  thought  to  result  from  the  decomposition  of  plants  and 
animals  buried  ages  ago  in  the  rock  layers.  The  oil  is  now 
reached  by  sinking  pipes  down  to  the  oil-bearing  layers 
of  porous  rock.  Some  of  these  pipe-wells  are  a fourth 
of  a mile  in  depth.  Thousands  of  wells  have  been 
sunk,  but  many  of  these  no  longer  yield  oil.  Others 
yield  a few  barrels  a day.  The  average  flow  is 
perhaps  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  barrels  daily ; but 
in  rare  instances,  more  than  1000  barrels  of  oil  have 
flowed  from  a single  well  in  a day. 

When  the  natural  flow  of  a well  ceases,  oil  is 
often  obtained  by  pumping.  Dynamite  is  sometimes 
exploded  at  the  bottom  of  the  wells.  Tliis  breaks  up 
the  porous  rock  and  in  many  instances  causes  the  oil  011  Reglon’  Pa' 

to  flow  very  freely,  although  at  times  the  wells  are  ruined  by  the  oil  is 
explosion.  One  of  the  pictures  shows  a “ shot  well  ” at  the  moment  A 
of  the  explosion.  A great  column  of  oil  is  tlirown  into  the  air.  cars. 


A Shot  Well. 


Oil  Pump. 

of  petroleum  are  Cleveland 
and  Philadelphia.  Millions 
of  dollars  wortli  of  oil  are 
sent  eacli  year  to  the  coun- 
tries of  western  Europe  and  southeast  Asia, 
mostly  through  the  ports  of  New  York 
and  Philadelphia. 

Loug  pipes  have  been  laid  from  the  tanks  in  the  oil 
fields  to  the  cities  in  which  the  petroleum  is  refined. 
Some  of  these  pipes  are  hundreds  of  miles  in  length.  The 
sent  through  them  by  means  of  powerful  force  pumps, 
large  amount  of  oil  is  transported  in  great  tanks  placed  on 
Much  of  it  is  also  shipped  in  bulk  in  barges  or  steamers. 


140 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 


The  petroleum  exported  each  year  from  the  United  States  is  of 
greater  valne  than  the  gold  mined  here  in  the  same  time.  Great 
Britain,  France,  Germany,  Japan  and  India  are  among  the  best 
customers  for  American  oil. 

In  the  oil  fields,  and  extending  somewhat  beyond  their 
limits,  is  found  natural  gas.  This 
gas,  like  the  petroleum,  is  ob- 
tained  by  sinking  pipes  in  the 
ground. 

Natural  gas  in  the  ground  is  not 
stored  in  caves  or  other  great  cavities, 
but  in  porous  rock,  such  as  sandstone 
or  limestone.  Layers  of  shale,  or  elay 
rock,  over  the  porous  rock  prevent  the 
gas  from  escaping. 

The  most  valuable  gas  wells  in 
the  United  States  are  in  Pennsylvania, 

Indiana  and  Ohio.  In  these  states,  the 
low  cost  of  natural  gas  has  in  recent  years 
caused  very  rapid  growth  in  manufactures. 

Natural  gas  is  used  chiefly  for  heating  purposes. 

The  gas  can  be  regulated  to  give  strong  and  steady 
heat,  and  this  fuel  is  therefore  of  great  value  in 
iron  mills  and  glass  works.  It  is  also  used  as  fuel 
in  dwellings  near  the  gas  regions. 

Many  of  the  wells  which  once  gave  out  gas 
under  great  pressure  have  now  run  out.  Others  are  fast  becoming 
weak.  Still  others  have  been  flowing  for  years. 

Natural  gas  and  petroleum  doubtless  have  a common  origin  in 
the  decay  of  plants  and  animals  in  ancient  rock  layers. 

143.  Gold  and  Silver. 

Gold  and  silver  are  called  precious  metals,  but  they  are 


not  nearly  so  useful  as  iron.  The  value  of  the  precious 
metals  is  largely  due  to  their  scarcity. 

Which  of  the  coins  of  the  United  States  are  made  of  gold?  Which 
are  made  of  silver  ? Name  some  other  uses  of  gold  and  of  silver. 


What  have  you  learned  about  the  gold-bearing  gravels  of  Cali- 
fornia ? See  lesson  85. 

Gold  is  found  pure  in  nature.  It  is  most  often  taken 
from  veins  of  quartz  rock  or  from  old  river  gravels 
formed  largely  of  the  washings  of  quartz  veins. 

Gold  is  separated  from  quartz  by 
crushing  the  rock  and  then  mixing  the 
mass  with  quicksilver  and  water.  The 
gold  and  quicksilver  soon  unite  with 
each  other.  The  amalgam,  or  com- 
pound of  the  two  metals,  is  heated  and 
the  quicksilver  is  thus  driven  off,  leav- 
ing  the  gold.  One 
of  the  pictures  on 
this  page  shows  a 
smelter y where 
work  of  this  kind 
is  done. 

Another  picture 
shows  how  a stream 
of  water  may  be 
used  to  wear  down 
gold-bearing  gravel 
beds.  Such  work 
is  known  as  hy- 
draulic  mining. 
The  gravel,  and  the 
gold  which  it  con- 
tains,  are  washed  into  a long  trough,  as  described  in  lesson  35. 

The  richest  gold  fields  in  the  world  are  the  western 
highland  in  our  country  ; the  mountains  of  southeast 
Australia  ; South  Africa;  and  Siberia.  The  gold  mines 
of  South  Africa  are  being  very  rapidly  developed. 

California  leads  the  other  American  states  in  the  quantity  of 
gold  mined.  Colorado,  Montana,  Nevada  and  South 
Dakota  also  take  high  rank  in  the  production  of 
this  precious  metal. 

Silver  is  rarely  found  in  a pure  state, 
but  is  almost  always  combined  with  other 
mineral  substances. 

America  supplies  most  of  the  silver  used 
in  the  world.  Until  recent  years,  the  chief 
sources  of  silver  ore  were  Mexico  and  the 
middle  Andes,  — in  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Chile. 
These  countries  still  yield  large  amounts 
of  the  metal. 

Colorado,  Montana  and  the  states  in  the  Great 
Basin  take  the  highest  rank  in  the  production  of 
silver  ore.  About  two  thirds  of  the  ore  mined  in 
our  country  are  taken  from  the  Rocky  mountains  of 
Colorado  and  Montana. 

In  prosperous  mining  years  the  output 
of  gold  and  silver  in  the  United  States 
amounts  to  about  $100,000,000,  — equal  to  the  cost  of 
the  Suez  canal.  This  amount,  however,  is  far  less  than 
the  value  of  eitlier  the  corn,  the  wheat  or  the  cotton 
raised  in  our  country.  The  value  of  the  silver  is  about 


Hydraulic  Mining. 


COPPER.  — BUILDING  STONE. 


141 


twice  as  great  as  that  of  the  gold.  San  Francisco  and  the  country,  where  it  is  most  needed.  Limestone  is  the 
Denver  owe  their  early  growth  largely  to  their  nearness  mostvaluable  building  stone  quarried  in  the  United  States, 
to  rich  deposits  of  gold  and  of  silver  ore.  The  principal  limestone  region  extends  in  a broad  belt 


144.  Copper  and  Other  Metals. 

The  United  States  leads  all  other  coun- 
tries  in  the  production  of  copper.  The 
most  valuable  mines  are  in  Montana, 
Michigan  and  Arizona. 

Iron  is  the  only  metal  more  useful  than  copper. 
The  latter  is  often  mixed  with  other  metals  to  form 
alloi/s.  These  are  of  greater  service  than  pure 
copper.  Thus,  bronze  and  bell  metal  are  made  of 
copper  and  tin.  Brass  consists  of  copper  and  zinc. 
Copper  is  often  mixed  with  gold  and  silver  to  make 
the  precious  metals  more  durable,  especially  in  the 
form  of  coins  and  jewelry. 

Spain,  Chile  and  Germany  produce  copper 
in  large  amounts.  England  purchases  about 
one  half  of  the  copper  mined  in  the  United 
States. 


Lead  and  Zinc.  Most  of  the  lead  produced  in  our 
country  comes  from  ores  of  silver  mined  in  the  Rocky 
mountains  of  Colorado  and  Idaho. 

Large  quantities  of  zinc  and  lead  are  obtained  from  ores  in  the 
Mississippi  valley,  especially  in  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Wisconsin. 

The  United  States  and  Germany  lead  in  the 
output  of  lead  and  zinc. 

Tin.  Very  little  tin  is  mined  in 
the  United  States.  About  one  half 
of  the  world’s  supply  comes  from 
the  Malay  peninsula.  Other 
important  sources  of  tin  are 
Banca  and  Billiton,  two  small 
islands  east  of  Sumatra ; 

Cornwall,  in  Southwest  Eng- 
land ; and  southeast  Aus- 
tralia. Singapore,  an  island 
port  near  the  Southern  end 
of'  the  Malay  peninsula,  ex- 
ports  more  tin  than  any  other 
city  in  the  world.  England 
supplies  our  country  with  the 
tinned  iron  of  which  tinware 
is  made. 

145.  Building  Stone. 

Thevarious  kinds  of  build- 
ing stone  quarried  eacli  year 
in  our  country  greatly  exceed 
in  value  the  gold  which  is  mined  liere. 

The  granite  alone  is  worth  almost  one  half  as  much  as 


Slate  Quarry. 


from  the  New  England  highland  to  the  Ozark  highland. 
Pennsylvania  and  Illinois  quarry  the  most  limestone.  A 
great  deal  of  limestone  is  heated,  or  burned,  to  make  lime. 

Marble  is  a compact  limestone  of  various  colors  and 
often  showing  beautiful  veins.  Vermont  supplies  more 
than  half  the  marble  quarried  in  the  Union. 
Tennessee,  New  York  and  Georgia  also 
produce  large  quantities  of  this  stone. 
The  most  and  the  best  granite  is 
quarried  in  New  England.  Massa- 
chusetts and  Maine  supply  more 
than  any  other  two  states. 

The  largest  amount  of  sand- 
stone  comes  from  Ohio  and 
Pennsylvania.  In  recent  years, 
Colorado  has  taken  high  rank 
in  the  output  of  this  fine  build- 
ing stone. 

Bluestone  is  a variety  of  sand- 
stone.  This  stone  is  formed  of 
small  grains  worn  mostly  from 
quartz  rock. 

Bluestone  is  hard  and  durable. 
It  is  therefore  useful  for  street 
work,  such  as  paving,  flagging  and 
curbing.  Most  of  the  bluestone 
quarries  are  near  the  Hudson  river. 
The  Berea  grit  of  Ohio  is  largely 
used  in  making  grindstones.  Many  of 
these  useful  stones  are  also  imported  from 
Nova  Scotia. 

Granite  Quarry.  Pennsylvania  supplies  more  than 
half  the  roofing  and  flagging  slate  used  in  our  country. 


the  gold.  The  states  which  rank  highest  in  the  production  Vermont  holds  second  place  in  the  production  of  this 
of  stone  are  those  in  the  most  thickly  settled  portion  of  stone. 


142 


NEW  ENGLAND  STATES. 


146.  Review  and  Map  Studies.1 

What  does  the  corner  map  of  the  United  States  on  the  opposite 
page  show  about  New  England,  — its  position,  size,  etc.?  Which  is 
farther  north,  — Boston  orRome? — Boston  or  Portland  (Oregon)? 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  surface  of  New  England?  See 
lesson  Jf5.  Why  are  there  so  many  lakes  and  falls  in  this  region  ? 
Which  of  the  New  England  states  is  partly  in  the  GreatValley? 
See  page  46.  Where  is  Lake  Champlain  ? 

Locate  Cape  Cod  peninsula  ; Marthas  Yineyard  and  Nantucket ; 
Penobscot  bay  ; Long  Island  sound.  Why  is  the  seacoast  so  ir- 
regular  ? See  lesson  45. 

Describe  the  course  of  the  Connecticut  river.  Where  is  the 
Merrimac  river  ? — The  Blackstone  river  ? 

What  do  the  maps  on  pages  21,  24,  128  and  129  show  about 
the  climate  of  New  England?  Why  is  its  climate  more  severe 
than  that  of  the  coast  of  Europe  in  the  same  latitude  ? 


The  mills  and  factories  of  New  England  use  great  quan- 
tities  of  cotton,  wool,  leather  and  rubber.  Part  of  this 
material  comes  through  the  port  of  Boston. 

This  city  distributes  cloth  and  leather  goods  made 
in  the  mills  and  factories  of  this  section.  Shiploads  of 
western  products  — such  as  pork,  cattle  and  beef  — are 
sent  from  this  port  to  Europe. 

Boston  has  excellent  railroad  connections  with  all  parts  of  the 
country.  The  Boston  and  Maine  lines  spread  northward;  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad  forms  a network  to  New 
York  ; the  Boston  and  Albany,  and  other  lines,  afford  direct  routes 
westward. 

Boston,  like  all  other  great  cities  in  our  country,  has 
extensive  manufactures.2  Among  these,  each  of  nearly 


What  are  the  leading 
industries  of  New  Eng-  olo 
land  ? See  lessons  129, 

133,  136,  137,  139  and  145.  Locate  the  capitals  of  the  New 
England  states.  Which  of  these  states  has  two  capitals  ? 


147.  New  England  States. 

Manufacturing  is  the  principal  industry  in  New  Eng- 
land. In  this  group  of  states  is  made  a large  portion  of 
the  cloth,  the  boots  and  shoes,  the  hardware,  the  firearms 
and  other  goods  of  various  kinds  used  in  our  country. 

With  excellent  water  power,  deep  harbors,  soft-wood 
forests,  and  quarries  of  building  stone,  New  England  has 
grown  rich  and  prosperous.  No  people  in  the  world  have 
done  more  for  public  schools  and  libraries  than  the  people 
of  New  England. 

Massachusetts.  Boston,  the  chief  trade  center  of 
New  England,  now  has  a population  of  more  than  half  a 
million,  — about  one  tenth  of  the  people  in  this  group  of 
states.  Boston  owes  its  growth  largely  to  the  fact  that 
here  the  railroads  from  the  west  reach  the  chief  harbor 
on  the  New  England  coast.  Among  American  cities, 
Boston  ranks  second  in  foreign  commerce.  It  has  also  a 
large  domestic  commerce. 


fifty  kinds 
y i el  ds  prod- 
ucts every 
year  worth 
from  one 
million  to 
twenty-  five 

million  dollars.  The  most  valuable  manufacture  is  clothing. 

There  is  a United  States  navy  yard  on  Boston  harbor. 

Among  the  cities  of  this  state,  Worcester  ranks  second 
in  size.  It  is  a railroad  center  and  has  a great  variety  of 
manufactures. 

We  have  learned  that  Fall  River  and  Lowell  manufacture 
more  cotton  cloth  than  any  other  two  cities  in  America. 
It  would  take  three  fourths  of  all  the  gold  mined  yearly 
in  our  country  to  pay  for  the  cotton  goods  made  in  Fall 
River  alone.  Lawrence,  a little  below  Lowell  on  the  Mer- 
rimac, takes  high  rank  in  both  woolen  and  cotton  goods. 

Cambridge  is  the  seat  of  Harvard  University. 


2 The  largest  cities  of  the  United  States,  in  the  order  of  size,  are  : New 
York,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  Brooklyn,  St.  Louis  and  Boston.  These  cities 


1 Do  not  forget  to  locate  every  place  named  in  the  text. 


rank  in  the  same  order  in  the  value  of  their  manufactures. 


NEW  ENGLAND  STATES. 


143 


72  Longitude  71 


West 


69  Greenwich  68 


ALula  wu.Aa 


Caribou 


roo*t«c 


Mtrkatahdin 


Danfo] 


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[attawamkeag1 


Grand 

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Monsol 


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anton 

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ield  Bucksnoi 

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lingtoir 


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inncbunkport 


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aconcord 

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Berwick 


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‘ortsmouth 


ISLES  OF  8HOAL  l 


NEW  ENGLAND 
STATES 


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Br&intrec 


Lynn,  Haverhill  and  Brockton  lead  in  the  manufacture  We  have  learned  that  Yermont  produces  more  than 
of  boots  and  slioes.  The  value  of  tliese  products  in  Lynn  half  the  marble  used  in  our  country.  Rutland  is  the 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  cotton  goods  in  Fall  River,  center  of  the  marble  industry.  St.  Albans  is  noted  for  its 

Springfield  has  a United  States  armory,  where  rifles  for  dairy  products;  and  Barre  for  its  granite. 

the  army  and  navy  are  

made. 

More  paper  is  made 
in  Holyoke  than  in  any 
other  American  city. 

Maine.  Portland,  the 
largest  city  in  Maine, 
is  on  a fine  harbor  and 
has  a large  coasting 
trade.  In  winter,  when 
the  St.  Lawrence  river 
is  frozen  over,  Portland 
serves  as  a port  for 
much  of  Canada’ s for- 
eign  trade. 

Large  cotton  mills 
have  been  built  in 
Lewiston,  near  falls 
that  supply  fine  water 
power. 

Bangor,  at  the  head 
of  tide  water  on  the 
Penobscot  river  which 
flows  from  the  Maine 
forest  region,  is  a great 
lumber  market. 

New  Hampshire. 

Manchester  is  one  of 

the  cities  having  ex- 
tensive  cotton  mills  on 
the  Merrimac  river. 

Locomotives  also  are 
made  in  this  city. 

Concord,  the  Capital, 
is  well  known  for  the 
granite  which  is  quar- 
ried  in  its  vicinity. 

Portsmouth  is  the 
only  seaport  on  New 
Hampshirebs  few  miles 
of  coast.  A United 
States  navy  yard  is 
situated  at  Kittery, 

Maine,  opposite  Ports- 


Longitude 


West 


i rom 


UTIMW  MB 


moutli.  War  vessels  are  often  repaired  in  navy  yards. 

Yermont.  The  small  rivers  flowing  into  Lake  Cham- 
plain  are  very  useful  in  floating  logs  down  to  the  sawmills. 
Burlington  has  the  best  harbor  on  this  lake,  and  has  grown 
to  be  a great  lumber  market. 


Riiode  Island.  Providence,  the  second  city  in  size 
in  New  England,  is  at  the  head  of  Narragansett  bay, 
— a partly  drowned  valley.  This  city  has  great  woolen 
mills  and  the  largest  jewelry  factories  in  the  United 
States. 


144 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


Pawtucket  and  Woonsocket,  on  the  Blackstone  river, 
have  large  cotton  mills.  In  the  old  Slater  mill  of  Paw- 
tucket, cotton  manufacturing  in  this  country  was  first 
started  in  1790.  See  picture  on  page  143. 

Rhode  Island  is  the  only  state  now  having  two  capitals. 
Newport,  one  of  the  capitals,  is  a famous  summer  resort. 

Connecticut.  New  Haven  is  the  largest  railroad  center 
and  port  in  Connecticut,  and  is  the  seat  of  Yale  University. 
This  city  manufactures  hardware  and  firearms. 

Hartford,  the  Capital,  is  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navi- 
gation  on  the  Connecticut  river.  Bridgeport  is  a manu- 
facturing city  on  Long  Island  sound. 

Waterbury  is  fa- 
mous for  brass 
manufactures.  Its 
best-known  articles 
are  watches,  clocks 
and  pins. 

Meriden  leads  in 
the  manufacture 
of  silver-plated  and 
britannia  ware. 


148.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Which  is  larger,  — Maine  or  New  York?  Wliich  is  farther 
north,  — New  York  or  Chicago? — Richmond  or  San  Francisco? 

Refer  to  the  maps  on  pages  21,  24,  128  and  129,  and  tell  what 
you  can  about  the  climate  of  these  states. 

Which  states  of  this  group  are  partly  in  the  Atlantic  Coastal 
plain  ? What  are  some  of  the  produets  of  the  piedmont  and  the 
eoastal  plain  in  these  states  ? See  lessons  4 5 , 54, 184, 185  and  189. 

Describe  the  Old  Appalachian  range  in  this  group  of  states.  See 
lesson  45-  Describe  the  Great  Yalley.  See  lesson  46-  What  two 
branches  of  the  Great  Valley  lead  into  the  Hudson  gorge  ? 

What  useful  produets  are  taken  from  the  Alleghany  ridges  and 
plateau  in  this  group  of  states  ? See  lessons  47  alld  140 • What 
two  rivers  unite  at  Pittsburg  to  form  the  Ohio  river  ? 

Describe  the  main  slopes  of  the  land  in  this  group  of  states. 
Of  what  state  is  Long  Island  a part  ? Locate  the  capitals  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  states. 


western  export  trade  to  New  York.  Several  railroad  lines 
from  east  to  west  have  been  built  aeross  the  Appalachian 
highland.  This  highland  is  ricli  in  coal,  iron  ore,  petroleum 
and  natural  gas.  The  piedmont  belt  yields  immense  crops 
of  tobacco.  The  Coastal  plain  is  a leading  fruit  district. 
Chesapeake  bay  has  valuable  oyster  beds. 

With  all  these  advantages,  this  group  of  states  has 
grown  wealthy,  and  three  of  its  cities  are  among  the 
largest  four  in  America.  New  York  ranks  first,  Phila- 
delphia tliird,  Brooklyn  fourth,  — Chicago  being  second. 

New  York.  New  York  has  more  than  three  times  as 
large  a population  as  Boston.  In  amount  of  foreign 

trade,  London  alone  sur- 
passes  the  port  of  New 
York.  The  great  seaport 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson 
river  carries  on  more  than 
half  the  foreign  trade  of  our 
country. 

The  port  of  New  York  is 
connected  with  the  interior  by 
several  trunk  lines  of  railroad. 
Among  these  are  the  New  York 
Central  and  the  Pennsylvania 
systems.  The  former  extends 
along  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk 
valleys,  reaching  Buffalo  on 
Lake  Erie.  At  Albany  this  line 
connects  with  the  Boston  and 
Albany  railroad.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania line  runs  to  Philadelphia, 
and  thence  to  Pittsburg. 

The  chief  exports  from 
New  York  are  meats,  cotton, 
petroleum,  wheat  and  flour.  Most  of  these  are  sent  to 
Great  Britain  and  other  countries  of  western  Europe. 

New  York’s  principal  imports  are  — cloth  from  Eng- 
land, Germany  and  France  ; coffee  from  Brazil  and  other 
parts  of  tropical  America ; cane  sugar  from  the  West 
Indies,  and  beet  sugar  from  Germany;  tin  plate  from 
England  ; rubber  from  Para ; tea  from  China  and  Japan. 

New  York  is  the  greatest  manufacturing  center  in 
America.  The  total  value  of  the  manufactures  of  this  city 
is  greater  than  that  of  all  the  articles  of  import  into  our 
country. 

The  great  value  and  variety  of  the  articles  made  in  this  city  may 
' be  judged  from  the  fact  that  there  are  more  than  one  hundred  in- 
dustries, eacli  of  which  yields  produets  worth  from  $1,000,000  to 
nearly  $150,000,000  each  year.  The  most  important  manufactures 
are  various  articles  of  clothing,  books,  eigars,  leather  goods  and 


149.  Middle  Atlantic  States. 


furniture. 

New  York,  Brooklyn  and  Jersey  City  prepare  great  quantities 


The  slight  drowning  of  ancient  Coastal  valleys  has  made 
fine  harbors  for  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Philadelphia  and 
Baltimore,  — four  of  the  commercial  cities  of  the  Union. 
The  Hudson  and  Mohawk  valleys  turn  much  of  the 


of  meat  for  market. 

Brooklyn  is  a little  more  than  half  as  large  as  New 
York.  These  two  cities  are  joined  by  the  largest  suspen- 
sion  bridge  in  the  world. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES. 


145 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC 
STATES 


'OTTAWA 


SCALE  OF  MILE3 


s Malone 1 
iburg-v 
' Potsdam'' 


Kingst  on , 


Watertown 


,Toront< 


r%^r/KbLT 

i PAK  4*  Oneidn 

mlcvs 

V.  tv  a<A  &»'* 


iwanda  •Batavia^Canan«laisu»| 
i A Å G^eva> 


//URONi 


Gloversrllle, 

Johnstown 


Springa 


yenn  Tann 
Keukatil 


Tortland 

Norwich, 


Dreonta 


Ithaca 


Binghamtc 


Wells  ville 


^Olean 


Susquehanna 
— Carbondale 


Jradfordt 


iP^ug!  keepsie 


Tqwanda 


Cleveland 


, Emporium 


Franklin1 
■8h  aron  ^ 


jWi  iiaznspbrV 


,Dubois 


Nvu  rast, 


[ittanni 


\ Be  iver  I 
) New 
Cumberiand  \ 

Welliburgi 


.Brighton 


?yrone 


M c K e e sp,£ir" 
•C  \ Johjisto^ 


Wåsliiugton 


WHEELII 


mellsvill 


‘‘COLUMBUS 


ierd«to> 


^Veston 


rASHINGTOn 

Alexandria, 
* Ml.  Ve  mon 
• /) 
Wxrrcnton  f/y 


leasant 


Salisbui 


Fredericksburg 


Chadottesvilla 


'Salem 


< c^A-v,  West 

\ ^yManfihester  tv  Pqin 

mville  Petersburg*'  «/«, 


Roanoke 


‘dford 


"V. Charles 
C. Henry 
tolk 


1 Marion 


tsmouth  ^Uc 
• Suffolkv 


In  the  refining  of  sugar,  Brooklyn  ranks  second  among  and  many  tanneries  have  been  built  there.  Leather  goods 
American  cities.  The  roasting  and  grinding  of  coffee  and  form  one  of  the  chief  manufactures  of  Philadelphia, 
spices  are  important  industries  here,  as  well  as  in  New  There  are  great  cotton  mills  and  oil  refineries  in  this 
York.  Brooklyn  contains  a United  States  navy  yard.  It  / city.  Along  the  river  front  in  and  near  Philadelphia  are 

has  dry  docks  and  (a  fm?  / 

otlier  facilities  for 
shipbuilding. 

Buffalo  has  grown 
to  be  a large  city, 
because  it  has  a fine 
harbor  on  Lake  Erie, 
is  at  one  end  of  the 
Erie  canal,  and  is  an 
important  railroad 
center. 

Great  quantities  of 
western  products  pass 
through  Buffalo.  Its 
principal  manufac- 
tures are  lumber  and 
flour.  Meat-packing 
is  here  an  extensive 
industry. 

Rochester  and  Syra- 
cuse  are  on  the  Erie 
canal  and  the  New 
York  Central  railroad. 

Rochester  has  large 
flouring  mills.  Syra- 
cuse  is  famous  for  its 
salt-works. 

Albany,  the  Capital, 
is  an  important  rail- 
road center  and  is 
near  the  head  of  tide 
water  in  the  Hudson. 

The  United  States 
Military  Academy  is 
at  West  Point. 

Pennsylvania. 

Philadelphia  has  a fine 
harbor  on  the  tidal 
portion  of  the  Del- 
aware  river.  This 
city  is  not  far 
from  rich  mines  of 
coal  and  of  iron  ore. 

Philadelphia  there- 
fore  exports  coal, 


Longitude 


West 


1 1 • in 


Greenwich 


‘ /^antiwie  W/  4*?$' 

a wsti  Am 

CT  • L NEW}»*)».'-  , 

I 4?  <$*<$>  J fRMiUrhVrn  jVl3bur-'  TTl 

\ Allentown  I ^ 

i J**“**^  w Heading  Y* 

i pr  TKTtITRGuo'-  N .Pottatowa  c- yvi;  , , Laug  oQ 

,.^Ln  r 

f^/carlisle  ^^Lancaatcr  Wc(!t cbesU-r^S.  ^ — 

v.t^rH.LAOECPUI^»^*  II 

l2bj;rL* . u 

F Ci,r 

l v)J  „„„ 


May 


Greenwich 


Longitude 


\\  est 


from 


and  manufactures  great  quantities  of  iron  and  steel  goods. 

One  of  the  best  sheep-raising  districts  in  our  country 
extends  across  this  state  and  into  Ohio  ; and  Philadelphia 
now  leads  the  world  in  making  woolen  carpets.  There 
are  large  forests  of  hemlock  in  northern  Pennsylvania, 


immense  shipyards.  Nearly  all  the  new  iron  ships  of 
our  navy  were  built  here. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Philadelphia  is  about  one  tenth  as 
great  as  that  of  New  York.  The  former  city  ranks  third 
in  population  among  American  cities. 


146 


SOUTHERN  STATES,  — EASTERN  SECTION. 


Pittsburg’s  leading  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel  goods.  Among  these  are  locomotives,  steel  rails, 
car  wheels,  and  armor  plate  for  ships  of  war. 

Excellent  sand  for  glass-making  is  found  in  the  upper 
Ohio  valley,  and  Pittsburg  is  famous  for  glassware. 

This  city  has  a large  trade  in  soft  coal  and  in  petroleum. 

Allegheny  lies  across  the  river  from  Pittsburg.  These 
cities  resemble  each  other  in  their  trade  and  manufac- 
tures,  but  Pittsburg  is  much  the  larger. 

Scranton,  Reading  and  Erie  have  large  iron  works. 


Baltimore.  This  bay  supplies  more  oysters  than  are 
taken  from  any  other  equal  area  in  the  world. 

With  these  natural  advantages,  Baltimore  takes  high 
rank  in  the  canning  and  shipping  of  fruit  and  oysters, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  articles  and  flour. 

The  United  States  Naval  Academy  is  located  at  An- 
napolis  in  this  state. 

Virginia.  Richmond  ranks  next  to  New  York  and  St. 
Louis  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  articles.  Richmond 
is  also  a leading  market  for  leaf  tobacco. 


New  Jersey.  Newark,  the  largest  city  in  New  Jersey, 
is  on  the  line  where  the  piedmont  belt  adjoins  the  lower 
Coastal  plain. 

This  city  has  large  tanneries.  Patent  leather  is  a 


leading  product.  Great  quantities  of  jew- 
elry  also  are  made  in  Newark. 

Jersey  City  forms  an  important  part  of  the  port  of 
New  York.  Many  ocean  steamers  clear  from  the  Jersey 
City  side  of  the  harbor,  because  tliey  can  there  meet  the 
freighted  trains  from  several  railroad  lines  that  do  not 
enter  the  city  of  New  York. 

Paterson  has  the  largest  silk  factories  in  the  United 
States.  Camden,  opposite  Philadelphia,  is  one  of  the  cities 
having  shipyards  on  the  Delaware. 

Trenton,  the  Capital,  is  famous  for  its  fine  pottery. 

Delaware.  Wilmington  contains  more  than  one  third 
the  population  of  the  state.  The  chief  manufactures  of 
the  city  are  leather  and  cars. 

The  canning  and  packing  of  fruit  form  the  leading 
industry  of  Dover,  the  Capital  of  Delaware. 


This  city  is  at  the  head  of  tide  water  on  the  James 
river,  and  has  an  active  coasting  trade. 

Norfolk,  the  chief  port  of  Virginia,  ships  great  quanti- 
ties of  cotton.  There  is  a large  United  States  navy  yard 

on  the  harbor, 
opposite  Nor- 
folk. 

Petersburg  and 
Lynchburg  are 

important  to- 
bacco markets. 

West  Vir- 
ginia. Wheeling 
is  the  center  of 
the  iron  industry  of  the 
state  and  is  noted  for  its 
nail-works. 

West  Virginia  has  exten- 
sive  salt-works.  Charleston, 
the  Capital,  is  in  the  salt 
region. 

Parkersburg  has  a large 
trade  in  both  crude  and  refined  petroleum. 

150.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

If  a ship  were  to  sail  due  west  from  the  strait  of  Gibraltar,  what 
part  of  our  coast  would  it  reach  ? Describe  the  climate  of  this 
section.  See  maps  on  pages  21,  24,  128  and  129. 

Which  of  the  states  of  this  group  lie  partly  within  the  Atlantic 
Coastal  plain  ? Name  two  valuable  products  raised  near  the  coast. 
See  lesson  54-  What  are  the  leading  products  of  the  Coastal  plain 
and  of  the  piedmont  belt  farther  inland  ? See  lessons  58  and  54- 
What  have  you  learned  about  the  Carolina  high  land  ? See  les- 
son 45.  Why  is  the  northern  half  of  the  Alleghany  plateau  more 
thickly  settled  than  the  Southern  half  ? See  lesson  47- 
Locate  the  state  capitals  in  this  group. 

151.  Southern  States,  — Eastern  Section. 


Maryland.  Baltimore  is  on  a fine  harbor  not  far  from 
the  head  of  Chesapeake  bay.  The  foreign  commerce  of 
this  city  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Philadelphia. 

Baltimore  is  almost  surrounded  by  fruit  districts.  It 
is  not  far  from  the  piedmont  tobacco  regions  of  Virginia 
and  Pennsylvania.  The  long  grain  belt  from  Lake 
Ontario  to  Chesapeake  bay  includes  the  country  around 


The  region  at  the  Southern  end  of  the  Appalachian 
highland  has  rich  mines  of  iron  ore  and  of  coal.  The 
uplands  of  this  section  form  one  of  the  most  productive 
cotton  districts  in  the  world.  Corn  and  tobacco  also 
abound.  Many  falls  and  rapids  at  the  lower  border  of 
the  piedmont  in  these  states  have  in  recent  years  led  to 
the  building  of  extepsive  cotton  mills. 


Ningpo®$g  ^ to  ^ Sg  Tokyo® 


SOUTHERN  STATES,  — EASTERN  SECTION. 


147 


Great  areas  of  the  coastal  plain  are  covered  with  forests 
of  yellow  pine  which  yield  valuable  lumber,  rosin  and 
turpentine.  Among  the  lesser  products  of  this  section 
are  early  fruits  and  vegetables.  Tbe  swampy  Coastal 
lowlands  produce  great  quantities  of  rice. 

North  Carolina.  Wilmington  has  a good  harbor  on 
the  tidal  waters  of  tbe  Cape  Fear  river.  The  chief 
exports  are  cotton  and  tobacco  from  tbe  uplands;  and 


world.  Charleston  takes  high  rank  in  tbe  export  of 
cotton  and  rice. 

Near  Charleston,  and  in  the  river  bottoms  and  marshy  lands  far- 
ther  south,  is  found  a kind  of  rock  known  as  phosphate  rock.  Large 
quantities  of  it  are  prepared  for  use  as  a fertilizer. 

Columbia,  the  Capital,  is  the  railroad  center  of  the  state. 

Georgia.  Atlanta  is  situated  where  several  railroads 
from  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  meet  others  from  the 


87  Longitude 85 


West 


Greenwich  79 


Clarksvilil 


Hjmd.ersy 


tjjfnon  City 
lyersburg 


[Glallatin1 


Murf  n-i-shni 


illahorna*.  - 


Palaski 


tewbern' 


larlotteV 


jKuforfc 

C.Lookout 


-Orinth" 


> ^7orer^e~' T 

New  DecaturXs* 


artanburg ® * Clrf ton 


Lltnington 


Okoloi 

Abejrdeei 


Florei 


COLUMBIA' 


irietto, 


tirminfcliam 

> 1 ® 

lesserner*^ 


■ VCvASR 

• Aikeilpv 

AugustA0™'*^ 


i&angton* 

M/tdiloA 


NewnanV 
/ *Gril 


>orgetown 


Sant e 


Tallad« 


loosa 


Opehka\l 
Phenix«  Columbi 
IY  •Unioi3 


Charleston 


Savanni 


■esson 


Eufaulai 


Dawson 

‘Cuthbert 


Green  ville 


^Albany 


'SÅPELO  I. 


Way  cross 


Brunt 

Okefiidkie 
Sufamjf-  i 


Valddsta, 
Thomasville  ( . 


|CUMI ERLAND 


^ton  rouge^M» 


[Feriandina 
|S/.</c^«8  R. 

Icksohville 


mticeljo 


TALLA-  O 


HASS1 


CHANDELEUR 


rvGreen  Coh-e  4)  SSt.A 
& ^ Sprjs.  Jj  %Af4s 

Gainesville  jSPalatka 

L.Orang$?  ( K I 

-»  Ocala*  \ A,11  vt 


ApalachU 

C.St.Blas 


fcf»  Apalaehee 
r Bay 

.St. George 


ISLES 


'•Delta  of  the 
iasiuippi  R. 


C.Canaueral 


great: 


Lgreat  abaco 


Harbor 


C.Romano 


iLEUTHERA.l. 


Nassau 

IWPROVIQENCE  1. 


C.Sable^ 


=tbRr 

TORX^LlGAS 


Greenwich  79 


Longitude 


85  West 


lumber,  rosin  and  turpentine  from  the  yellow-pine  forests 
of  the  coastal  plain. 

Raleigh,  the  Capital,  is  in  the  cotton  and  tobacco  dis- 
trict.  This  city  is  the  leading  cotton  market  in  the  state, 
and  is  well  known  for  its  tobacco  manufactures. 

Charlotte  is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  therefore 
a market  for  the  products  of  the  surrounding  district. 

Asheville  is  a beautiful  mountain  resort. 

South  Carolina.  Charleston  is  the  chief  seaport  of 
South  Carolina.  This  city  and  Wilmington  export  more 
rosin  and  turpentine  than  any  other  two  ports  in  the 


Mississippi  valley.  This  city  is  there- 
fore a trade  center  for  nearly  all  kinds  of  Southern 
products.  Atlanta  has  extensive  cotton  mills. 

Savannah  and  Charleston  resemble  each  other  in  their 
exports.  Only  New  Orleans  and  New  York,  among  the 
seaports  of  our  country,  surpass  Savannah  in  the  export 
of  cotton.  This  city  has  a large  trade  in  rice. 

Augusta,  Macon  and  Columbus  are  not  only  important 
markets  for  Southern  products,  but  they  also  have  good 
water  power  for  their  cotton  mills.  Augusta  has  the 
largest  cotton  mills  in  the  South. 


®Damascus 8 Cairo  © g 


148 


SOUTHERN  GROUP,  - WESTERN  SECTION. 


Florida.  Key  West,  the  largest  city  in  Florida,  is  on 
a coral  island.  The  chief  manufacture  in  this  city  is 
cigars  made  of  Cuban  tobacco.  Sponges,  gathered  from 
the  surrounding  waters,  are  shipped  from  this  port. 

Key  West  is  a United  States  naval  station. 

Jacksonville  has  a large  trade  in  lumber  and  oranges. 

Pensacola  “xports  great  quantities  of  lumber.  A United 
States  navy  yai  d is  located  near  this  port. 

Alabama.  Mobile,  at  the  head  of  Mobile  bay,  is  the 
principal  port,  and  forms  the  outlet  for  a large  portion 
of  the  cotton  and  the  lumber  products  of  the  state. 

Birmingham  is  situated  in  the  coal  and  iron  district 
near  the  Southern  end  of  the  Appalachian  highland.  This 
city  has  extensive  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel. 

Montgomery,  the  Capital,  has  a large  trade  in  cotton. 

Mississippi.  Vicksburg,  Meridian  and  Natchez  are  im- 
portant cotton 
markets. 

Tennessee. 

Nashville,  the  Capi- 
tal, is  in  the  belt 
where  the  cotton 
and  the  tobacco 
districts  merge  into 
each  other.  Large 
areas  in  Tennessee  are  forested. 

Nashville  is  a market  for  cotton, 
lumber  and  tobacco. 

Memphis  is  the  largest  cotton 
market  in  the  state,  and  the  most 
important  river  port  between 
St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans. 

Memphis  is  also  a railroad  center.  ' 

Much  of  the  cotton  sent  from  this 
city  goes  by  rail  to  New  York  or  to 
other  cities  in  the  northeast  part  of  our 
country,  where  there  are  many  cotton  mills. 

Chattanooga,  like  Birmingham,  is  in  the  coal  and  iron 
district  near  the  Southern  end  of  the  Appalachian  high- 
land. Iron  and  steel  goods  are  the  chief  manufactures 
in  both  these  cities. 

Knoxville  is  the  trade  center  of  northeastern  Tennessee. 

152.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Wbat  two  territories  are  in  this  group  ? Which  is  the  larger,  — 
Texas  or  New  England?  Which  reaches  farther  south, — Texas 
or  Florida?  See  map  on page  126. 

Describe  the  climate  of  this  group  of  states  and  territories.  See 
maps  on  pages  21,  2Jh  128  and  129. 

Describe  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi.  What  have  you  learned 
about  the  flood  plains  of  this  river  ? See  lesson  53. 

What  have  you  read  about  the  Texas  prairies  ? See  lesson  51. 
What  region  is  on  the  west  of  these  prairies  ? How  do  you  account 
for  its  dryness  ? See  lesson  50. 


Which  part  of  this  section  is  the  most  thickly  settled  ? Why  ? 
See  map  on  page  121^.  Locate  the  capitals  of  these  states  and  terri- 
tories. 

153.  Southern  Group,  — Western  Section. 

The  products  and  industries  of  this  section  resemble 
those  of  the  states  farther  east.  Rice  thrives  in  the 
swamps  along  the  coast  and  in  the  river  valleys ; sugar 
cane  abounds  in  the  flood  and  delta  plains;  forests  of 
yellow  pine  and  other  trees  cover  large  areas ; cotton, 
grain  and  tobacco  grow  in  abundance  ; large  numbers  of 
cattle  and  sheep  graze  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
section,  especially  in  Texas. 

Among  the  states  of  our  country,  Texas  takes  first  rank 
for  cotton  and  cattle.  Louisiana  produces  more  sugar 
cane  and  rice  than  any  other  state. 

Louisiana.  New  Orleans  has  an  excellent  harbor  on 
the  Mississippi  river  and  has  grown  to  be 
the  largest  city  in  the  Southern  states. 
Though  its  import  trade  in  foreign 
goods  is  not  large,  yet  its 
foreign  export  trade  surpasses 
that  of  every  other  city  in  the 
Union,  except  New  York. 
New  Orleans  sends  yearly 
to  Europe  cotton 
valued  at  nearly 
$100,000,000.  This 
city  has  also  a very 
large  trade  in  sugar, 
rice  and  corn. 

New  Orleans  has 
had  rapid  growth  in 
manufactures. 
Among  the  cities  of 
our  country,  it  takes 
high  rank  in  the  re- 
fining  of  sugar. 

New  Orleans  is  an 
important  railroad  cen- 
ter. The  Southern  Pa- 
cific system  connects  it 
with  points  westward  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  Illinois  Central, 
the  Queen  and  Crescent  and  other  routes  lead  northward  to 
Chicago,  Cincinnati  and  other  cities. 

Shreveport,  on  the  Red  river,  is  in  a rich  cotton  district. 
This  city  is  the  second  cotton  market  in  the  state,  and 
has  a large  river  traffic.  Steamboat  and  railroad  lines 
connect  Shreveport  with  New  Orleans. 

Texas.  Texas  is  the  largest  state  in  the  Union.  Its 
area  is  greater  than  that  of  all  the  New  England  and 
Middle  states  tpgether.  The  state  of  Texas  may  be 
divided  into  three  districts,  each  of  which  is  as  large  as 
Great  Britain. 


SOUTHERN  GROUP,  — WESTERN  SECTION. 


149 


102  Longitude  100 


Buffalo  i 


Beavci 


lureka  Sprajjb 
Harriscn 


^Fi  yetteville. 

ju,  ,h 


Stillwater 


Batfsvi^kv  Aon/sboroj 
isiwport' 


C R EN^O 

Muscogee 


GUTHRI 

r>  «Edmond  J 

0KM 

* t-Ji^knyiorna, 

r<wAV,,.* 


Fort  Smitlu^^. 

Dardanelle 


I Brinale^ 

ilTTLEW 

! CUrendon? 


Clarendon 


Helenal 


Stuttgart 


iKAHOMA 


"Ardmoi 


ykadelphi 


’ISHOMIN( 


LHHO  fl STA 


pichita  Fj 


licello 


HopeY^  J 
I Camden 
\ • Magnolia 


Henri< 
1 Seymour 


Gainesville 


Bonham 


Texarcani 


STAK  ED 


Denton 


.Sulphur 
Spr6,  Atlanta* 
Jefferson 


Green  ville  ■ 

, DALLAS 


[omer 


l^Bastroj 
Mon  roe) 


Rustoi 


•Albany 


•veport' 


Marshall 


.Fort  Worth 


*/3ackson 


Abilene^ 


Cisco' 


.Cleburne 


Caddo  Pedké} 


Hendel 


Lchitocl' 


Jlillsboro 


Coleman 


»^townv  < 


Waco 
S *Marlin 


Nacog- 

doches 


AlexandriiP 
> Cbeneyvil 


rockett 


Ampasas 

(Jeorgeto 


Grovetom 


* #Taylor 

. AUSTIN 


Navasota 


-Frederick*burg 


fayettei 


Brenham 


r.  C°4 

la  r co  s 


lumont 


iastrop 


Lagrange1 


Houston 


Seguil 

uAntonio 


Gonzales 


.sjy*® 


Atchafo 


iinond 


Dell 

jtfississtpp 


,Cuero 


Victoria 


Beeville 


San_Diego( 
Bena  vides  • 
Laredo 


CorpusXuofpits  Christl 
Christi  /fBay 


SOUTHERN  GROUP 


Dallas  and  Fort  Worth  are  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  Texas  prairies,  — in  a rich  farming  and  grazing 
district.  Both  tliese  cities  handle  great  quantities  of 
wheat  and  corn ; and  both  have  large  flouring  mills. 

Dallas  is  a leading  market  for  farming  implements. 
Fort  Worth  has  great  stock  yards.  Many  cattle  are  sent 
from  this  district  to  northern  markets. 

San  Antonio  is  an  important  center  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  railroad,  and  on  the  main  railroad  line  running 


fell  fighting  to  the  last,  rather  than  surrender.  Texas  was  soon 
afterwards  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Galveston  ranks  high  among  the  cotton  ports  of  our 
country.  Among  its  other  exports  are  hides  and  wool. 

Houston  is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  is  situated 
on  the  navigable  Buffalo  Bayou. 

Arkansas.  Little  Rock  is  the  Capital  and  largest  city 
in  Arkansas.  Large  quantities  of  cotton-seed  oil  and  oil- 
cake  are  made  in  this  city. 


southward  into  Mexico.  This  city  is  the  trade  center  of  Fort  Smith  is  a trade  center  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Southwest  Texas.  state.  Hot  Springs  is  a well-known  resort  for  invalids. 


\v  ost 


from 


Greenwich  94 


Greenwich  94 


102  Uongituuo 


«feal 


i rom 


101 


San  Antonio  is  famous  in  the  history  of  Texas.  Not  long  after 
the  United  States  purchased  the  vast  territory  of  Louisiana  west 
of  the  Mississippi  river,  thousands  of  Americans  erossed  the  border 
and  settled  in  Texas,  whieh  was  then  a part  of  Mexico.  When  the 
Mexicans  tried  to  oppress  the  Americans,  the  latter  rose  in  arms 
and  won  the  freedom  of  their  state. 

One  of  the  fiercest  struggles  in  this  war  took  place  in  a building 
known  as  the  Alamo,  in  San  Antonio.  Here  a small  band  of  Amer- 
icans was  attacked  by  a large  force  of  Mexicans.  The  Americans 


Oklahoma.  This  territory  was  opened  to  white  settlers 
in  1889,  and  is  now  only  thinly  settled.  Corn  and  cotton 
are  raised  in  some  parts,  while  others  are  suitable  only 
for  grazing.  Oklahoma  and  Guthrie  are  the  principal 
towns. 

Ixdiax  Territory.  Tahlequah,  the  Capital  of  the 
Cherokee  nation,  is  the  leading  town  in  this  territory. 


150 


CENTRAL  STATES,  — EASTERN  SECTION. 


highland  near  Lake  Superior.  See  lesson  J,9. 

Which  part  of  this  group  of  states  is  in  the 
great  soft-wood  forest  belt?  See  lesson  ISS. 

Which  parts  have  valuable  hard-wood  forests  ? 

What  do  you  know  about  the  soil  of  the  prairies  ? See  lesson  51. 
What  are  the  principal  products  of  the  prairies  ? 

On  what  bodies  of  water  does  a vessel  sail  in  going  from  Chicago 
to  Cleveland  ? — From  Duluth  to  Buffalo  ? 

Locate  the  capitals  of  the  statps  in  this  section. 

155.  Central  States,  — Eastern  Section. 

Though  the  Central  states  have  no  seacoast,  and  there- 
fore  little  foreign  commerce,  yet  they  have  fine  water 
ways  for  inland  commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
Mississippi  system.  Moreover,  most  of  the  section  is  so 
level  or  so  gently  rolling  that  railroads  are  built  at  small 
expense,  and  freight  rates  by  rail  are  therefore  low. 

These  states  form  the  best  farming  and  grazing  district 
in  our  country,  so  that  meat-packing  and  flour-milling 
are  very  important  industries.  The  iron  mines  in  the 
Lake  Superior  region  are  without  a rival.  The  copper 
mines  in  the  same  district  are  only  slightly  surpassed  by 
those  of  Montana. 

The  pine  forests  around  the  upper  lakes,  and  the  hard- 
wood  forests  a little  farther  south,  give  this  section  first 
rank  in  lumber,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  farming 
machines,  furniture  and  carriages.  Beds  of  soft  coal,  and 


Ohio.  Cincinnati  has 
about  ten  miles  of  water 
front  on  the  Ohio  river, 
and  fully  a score  of  rail- 
road  lines  enter  this  city. 

It  has  therefore  grown  to 
be  a center  of  trade  for  a 
great  area  of  farming  and 
grazing  country.  The  chief  manufactures  of  Cincinnati 
are  clothing  and  liquors.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  and 
hogs  are  raised  in  the  Ohio  valley,  and  many  of  these  are 
sold  in  Cincinnati.  Meat-packing  is  therefore  an  im- 
portant industry.  Many  kinds  of  iron  goods  also  are 
made  liere. 

Cleveland  is  within  easy  reach  of  the  coal  fields  of  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania ; of  the  oil  districts  in  the  same  states  ; 
of  the  iron  mines  of  the  Lake  Superior  region;  of  the  soft- 
wood  forests  of  Michigan,  and  the  hard-wood  forests  of 
Ohio. 

Witli  these  advantages,  Cleveland  has  become  a leading 
city  in  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  in  oil  refining,  in  ship- 
building,  and  in  other  great  industries.  More  petroleum  is 
refined  in  Cleveland  than  in  any  other  city  of  the  Union. 


154.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Which  is  farthest  north,  — Chicago,  Boston  or  Home  (Italy)? 

Which  of  the  states  in  this  section  border  on  Lake  Michigan  ? 
Which  state  has  the  longest  lake  coast  ? 

Study  the  maps  on  pages  21, 24, 128  and  129,  and  then  tell  what 
you  can  about  the  climate  of  this  group  of  states. 

Which  part  of  this  section  is  mountainous  ? Which  of  the  states 
in  this  group  are  partly  within  the  Alleghany  plateau  region  ? De- 
scribe  this  part  of  the  plateau.  Name  some  of  its  products.  See 
lessons  4-7,  136,  187,  140  and  11$. 

Which  of  the  states  of  this  group  lie  partly  within  the  St.  Law- 
rence  basin  ? Name  some  of  the  products  of  the  old  worn-down 


wells  of  natural . gas,  supply  fuel  for  the  extensive  manu- 
factures. The  eastern  and  Southern  portions  of  this 
section  hold  first  place  in  the  production  of  wool,  tobacco 
and  hemp. 

Such  are  the  natural  advantages  and  fruitful  industries 
of  the  Central  states  to-day,  although  many  people  are 
still  living  who  can  recall  the  time  when  most  of  the 
region  was  a wilderness,  and  when  even  Chicago  was  only 
a frontier  trading  town  on  the  small  river  which  now 
flows  through  the  second  largest  city  in  all  America. 


CENTRAL  STATES, 


EASTERN  SECTION. 


151 


ISLE  ROYALE 


MICHIPICOTEN  I. 


Keweenaw 


Outonngoi 


i^ashburn 
>r  ' 
Ashland 


Negannt 


[^St.Ignace 
^juj nae 


Ir  >n  Mounl 


thebo; 


Petogkey) 


Antigo 


'Merrill' 


|^/»Hu3son 


Marshfield  vens  lfoint( 


Cadillac 

Ludington 


r°"ar,}C/Greei 

•»>.>£'  i 

irfi  Lepcrc  I 


] laniste* 


Necedah, 


^iOjihkosh  fManitow 

and  du  Lac 
.P.eaver  Dam 


fSheboygan 


Big  Rapidal 


Baraboo* 


■s  Green  v;j; 

Muskegon  • 


Itertown 


tirie  du  1 
-\Chien| 


MADISONsL  Oco? 


lUKEEkq 


si  ,J.  hns, 


Port  HurouT.i’ 


Mineral  Polnt 
PlattWille 


Grand  II d ven 
Hollanu  • 


Rapidfl 

...  «Hastings 
^Jlegan  chnrl„,| 

*»o3\  Battle  Cre 
200  <4^_4  _ Jvac 
Harbor  Ma  ufia 


jRacine 

[Kenosha 


lon  roe 


Dubuque* 


Galena 


Bel  videre  r ( i 
c^ford  r \ 
Elginf 


[Waukegan 


.Fjreeport' 


ABenton 

Three  Ri  vers 
Sft  Joseph  f 


^ Aslitabul^ 

jcievelattd 


►terling 


IHICAGI 

Michigu 

C luft 


Coldwatfr  Hillsdalt 


’ Dixon 


jJCfkhart 
.«  Goshen 

*i  Kendallville 
• Warsaw  f 


Toledo' 


^^^AKiline 
Rock  Island 


* Laporte, 
>amiso/ 


^ — ^EWrU". 
Sanduaky  .pberlinS 

,fi/»r»“lki  Akron. 


^/Fremont 
j^^Fostoria  T 


W arien 


Jiraidw 


Findla’ 


fereat  w 


FortW  ayne; 


JsjmkakgeVb1 


.Alliance* 


Galetsburg 


[un(W  ,n.Van  Wert  I 
u lon  Lima* 

KejitwnT 


Monmouth 


Bucyrus* 

Alarion 


Log  a import 

) f 

"MS  Kokomo  \AIarion 
^-♦Lafayette  jA, 

Frankfort^H  Mun« 
m Lebanon  A-  ^"r 
cwfor  Isville  * Anderson 

/INDIANAPOL|S/  1 

Gr<  eifcastle  J'f  ConnemviUe 

; ..  /shHbyvill* 

Bm2il  ./  , • ...  ,a 

AA^  ^ejM^anklm  A>j«?TM>urgMuld 

ooniijrgton  f*.  VlColmnbus 


Normal 

Bloominj 


Can t on 


[t.VernonV^j^^, 
Jelaware 
^ Newark  - 

COLUMBUS^ 

\ '^Lamaste^ 

-|\tNe!X 

Wells  tou" 


Pekin 


«rtlandj 


Macomb 


U^klney  XXL 

Piquy^  U rbana  \ 

ile  aTroy  ' 

mond  \ Springfield 

lyt°7xe  må  Cir7Vi,H 
Washington 

I Hamilton  W 

CINCINN ATI  ChOBcoth. 

LjUftayton WJ 

Lo2^Vp°rt  , c 

l Portsmouthk 

XarrolltonL  y , • 

X \ir-éy  May  sville-  > 

•^1  Cynthiana^^ 

l Lejington  • M{^stAl6g 
“PlHlclolMrlllt  * fflndmtrLy  ' * . 


'Canjbridge 


Lincoln 


} Jackson  vllleV^.V<inllaTn' 


Decati 


Charleston 


Marietl 


Mattoon 


Litchfield 


Gallipolii 


"Madi.sou< 


Wfiisouri 


«•ontoj 


Mitchell 


Cei  tralia 


Jeffer.,0>1 
itingburg  tlvjÅ 
NewAlbanJ^J 


j^Duquoiij 


Carmis 

Mt.Vei 


CENTEAL 

STATES 


Lbethtowij 


•Dan  vill©' 


Earlington  i 


■flOTonraj 


Princeton 


ia  Bowlinj 


8CALE  OF  MILES 


Xj^Eussellvl 

lopkins  ville 


Green 


illiaiusbufg1 


«Frank  li>i/ 


Mayfiold 
•kman 


Fulton 


We  have  learned  that 
hard-wood  forests  abound 
in  the  Ohio  valley,  and 
that  agricultural  imple- 
ments  are  made  in  several 
of  the  large  cities  of  this 
section.  Among  these 
are  Dayton,  Springfield 
Akron  and  Canton. 


Columbus,  the  Capital,  is  a trade  center  for  middle  Ohio. 
This  city  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  carriages. 

Toledo  has  docks  several  miles  in  length,  and  is  a ship- 
ping point  for  grain,  flour,  iron  ore,  lumber  and  coal. 

Youngstown  is  an 
important  center  of 
iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures. 


the  goods  imported  into  our  country  during  the  same 
length  of  time. 

From  what  regions  does  Chicago  receive  wheat,  corn,  eattle,  hogs, 
iron  ore,  coal,  lumber  ? What  canal  route  leads  through  Chicago  ? 


Indiana.  Indian- 
apolis  is  the  center  of 
trade  of  the  rich 
farming  and  grazing 
district  of  middle  In- 
diana. Several  lines 
of  railroad  meet  in 
this  city.  They  bring 
in  grain  and  eattle, 
and  carry  back  the 
various  kinds  of  goods 
which  are  needed  on 
the  great  f arms. 

Meat-packing  and 
flour-milling  are  lead- 
ing  industries  in  In- 
dianapolis. 

Evansville  is  the 
principal  shipping 
point  for  the  grain, 
hour  and  meat  prod- 
uets  of  Southwest 
Indiana. 

Fort  Wayne  is  an 

important  trade  cen- 
ter in  the  northeast 
part  of  the  state. 

Many  railroad  cars 
are  made  in  this  city. 

South  Bend  is  fa- 
mous  for  its  wagons 
and  plows. 

New  Albany,  on  the  Ohio,  has  extensive  glass  works. 

Illinois.  In  the  value  of  its  manufaetures,  Chicago 
ranks  second  among  American  cities.  The  various 
articles  made  or  prepared  for  market  in  a single  year 
in  this  great  city  are  wortli  nearly  as  much  as  all 


Chicago  is  the  greatest  railroad  center  and  lake  port  in 
the  world.  This  city  ranks  first  also  as  a meat,  grain  and 
lumber  market.  No  other  city  in  the  Union  makes  as 
much  furniture  or  as  many  farming  implements.  In  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  only  Pittsburg  surpasses  Chicago. 


Longitude 


87  West 


from  85  Greenwich 


Longitude 


West 


from 


85  Greenwich 


152 


CENTRAL  STATES,  — EASTERN  SECTION. 


Iftnifftftpw 

HIIIIMBI—di 


Wg  imimMMinnnn 

■sSJLr  at.  .afe  Jrv 


What  have  you  learned  about  the  Great  Lakes  as  a water  way  ? 
See  lessons  Jfi  and  120. 

Among  the  railroad  lines  which  center  in  Chicago  are  the  follow- 
ing  : the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  from  Buffalo ; the 
Pittsburg  and  Fort  Wayne  from  Pittsburg ; the  Illinois  Central 
from  New  Orleans ; the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fé  from  South- 
ern California ; the  Wabash  from  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis ; the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  from  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul. 


Chicago,  though  much  less  in  value.  The  chief  manu- 
factures  of  Milwaukee  are  liquors  and  flour.  Large  quan- 
tities  of  meat  are  packed  here. 

Lacrosse,  Oshkosh  and  Eauclaire  are  lumber  markets. 

Racine  is  one  of  the  cities  which  manufacture  wagons 
and  farming  implements. 

Kentucky.  Tliis  state  takes  the  lead  in  the  cultiva- 

tion  of  tobacco  and  hemp.  Louis- 
ville  is  one  of  the  largest  tobacco 
markets  in  the  world.  Great 
quantities  of  leather  are  tanned 
here. 

Covington  and  Newport  are  on 

the  Ohio  river,  opposite  Cincin- 
nati.  These  Kentucky  cities, 
though  among  the  largest  in  the 


FLOUR  MILL  MINNEAPOLIS. 


The  leading  industry  in 
Peoria  is  the  manufacture  of 
liquors. 

Springfield  is  a trade  center 
for  middle  Illinois;  and  Quincy, 
for  the  western  part  of  the  state. 

Michigan.  Detroit  has  a fine 
harbor  on  the  Detroit  river. 

This  city,  like  Chicago  and 
Cleveland,  is  within  easy  reach 
of  the  lumber  and  iron  regions. 

Detroit  is  noted  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cars  and  iron  goods. 

Grand  Rapids  has  excellent  water  power  in  falls  of 
the  Grand  river,  and  is  also  near  the  lumber  districts.  No 
otlier  city  in  the  lake  region,  except  Chicago,  manufac- 
tures  as  much  furniture. 

Saginaw,  Bay  City  and  Muskegon  have  an  immense 
trade  in  lumber.  The  most  productive  salt-works  in  our 
country  are  in  the  district  near  the  head  of  Saginaw  bay. 

Wisconsin.  Milwaukee  is  the  second  city  in  size  on 
Lake  Michigan.  This  port  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and 
carries  on  an  extensive  lake  commerce  similar  to  that  of 


state,  are  really  suburbs 
of  Cincinnati.  They 
contain  many  fine  resi- 
dences. 

Lexington  is  in  the 

Blue  Grass  region , — a 
district  famous  for  fine 
horses. 

156.  Review 
and  Map  Studies. 

Locate  this  group  of  states. 
What  two  large  cities  in  this 
section  are  about  halfway 
between  the  equator  and  the  north  pole  ? Which  extends  farther 
north, — Maine  or  Minnesota?  Which  states  in  this  group  are 
west  of  Illinois? 

What  do  the  inaps  on  pages  21,  24,  128  and  129  show  about  the 
climate  of  this  group  of  Central  states  ? 

Where  does  the  Mississippi  river  rise?  What  river  of  the 
Nelson  system  rises  near  by  ? How  do  you  account  for  the  richness 
of  the  soil  in  the  Red  river  prairies  ? See  lesson  51. 

In  which  states  do  the  prairies  merge  into  the  Western  plains  ? 

Describe  the  general  course  of  the  Missouri  river  across  this 
group  of  states.  Across  which  state  does  the  Platte  river  flow? 
Where  are  the  Black  hills  ? What  do  they  yield  ? See  lesson  50. 


CENTRAL  STATES,  — WESTERN  SECTION. 


153 


Describe  the  highland  in  Southern  Missouri.  See  lesson  Ifl. 
Name  the  capitals  of  the  states  in  this  group.  Which  of  the 
capitals  are  on  the  Missouri  river  ? Which  is  on  the  Mississippi  ? 


Iowa.  Des  Moines,  the  Capital,  is  in  the  heart  of  the 
rich  Iowa  prairie  region.  This  city  is  a market  for  grain, 
cattle  and  dairy  products,  for  which  the  state  is  famous. 


96  Greenwich  94 


102  Longitude  iQO 


West 


WINNIPEQ 


Srafton 


[UNTER! 


>^TSlE 
RO YALE 


Vermilion  2/j 


Grand  Forks 


^»»nne 


Wrookston 


i.  Winnibigoahiah 


Hillsboro  i 


Itaaca  Li 


Loofhea»  1 


Dickihsofi" 


I Mandani.^ISMARtJK 


^/érainerd 

^ I Hl Ml* 

! \^L<ic» 
Littl^  Falls 


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Alexandria 


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Big  Stone  i 

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Watertowns 


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Bi  >okings 


Jdankat 


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Mitchell 


MADISON 


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Chadron 


anktopl  , 

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Longitude 


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West 


157.  Central  States, 

Western  Section. 

The  prairie  portion 
of  the  states  in  this 
Western  section  is  in 
the  wheat  and  corn 
area.  Almost  the  en- 
tire  section  is  suited 
to  grazing.  In  the 
northeast  are  portions 
of  the  lumber  and  the 
iron  districts. 

The  principal  indus- 
tries of  these  states 
are  farraing,  grazing, 
lumbering,  flour-mill- 
ing  and  mining. 

Missouri.  St.  Louis 
has  a population  about 
equal  to  that  of  Bos- 
ton. The  former  city 
is  the  principal  trade 
center  of  the  iniddle 
Mississippi  valley,  and 
is  reached  by  railroads 
and  rivers  from  nearly 
all  parts.  Many  of  the  * 
products  of  this  fertile 
valley  find  a market 
in  St.  Louis ; and  this 
city  sends  out  grocer- 
ies,  clothing  and  agri- 
cultural  implements. 

No  American  city, 
except  Minneapolis, 
surpasses  St.  Louis  in 
the  production  of 
flour.  This  great  river 
port  is  near  the  Ken- 
tucky  tobacco  district 
and  ranks  next  to  New 
York  in  the  manufac- 
ture  of  tobacco  goods. 

Meat-packing  is  an  important  industry  in  St.  Louis. 

Kansas  City  is  one  of  the  leading  railroad  centers  in 
the  Mississippi  basin.  This  city  therefore  has  an  ex- 
tensive  trade  with  the  surrounding  agricultural  districts. 
It  is  one  of  the  greatest  markets  for  farming  implements 
in  the  country. 

St.  Joseph  and  Springfield  are  important  trade  centers. 


Sioux  City  is  a large  grain  and  meat  market. 

Dubuque,  Davenport  and  Burlington  are  important  river 
ports  and  lumber  markets.  These  cities  have  a large 
trade  in  the  agricultural  products  of  the  state. 

Minnesota.  The  flour  made  yearly  in  Minneapolis 
could  not  be  purchased  by  all  the  gold  mined  in  our 
country  during  the  same  length  of  time.  No  other  city 


154 


SOUTHWESTERN  GROUP. 


DENVER  COL. 


in  the  Union  produces  one  half  as  much  flour.  More 
than  one  fourth  of  Minnesota  is  covered  with  forests 
of  white  pine.  The  Mississippi  river  above  Minneapolis 
is  fed  by  many  streams  from  the  forest  area,  and  this 
city  has  therefore  become  the  leading  lumber  market  in 
the  Northwest. 

St.  Paul  is  a great 
railroad  center,  and 
is  at  the  head 
of  steamboat 
navigation  on 
the  Mississippi. 

The  principal 
industry  of  this 
city  con- 
sists  in 
gathering 
the  prod- 
ucts  of  the 
surround- 
ing  region, 
and  in  shipping 
supplies  to  the 
farming  and 
the  lumbering 
districts. 

Duluth  is  the 


Omaha  is  a large  railroad  center  and  a shipping  point 
for  cattle  and  grain. 

Lincoln,  the  Capital,  is  reached  by  several  railroads  and 
has  grown  to  be  the  most  important  trade  center  in  the 
corn  and  wheat  region  of  southeastern  Nebraska. 

Kansas.  This 
state  lies  mostly 
within  the  prai- 
ries,  but  partly 
within  the  West- 
ern plains.  The 
chief  products  are 
corn, wheat 
and  cattle. 
The  grains 
grow  best 
in  eastern 
Kansas, 
meat  mar- 
river.  Chi- 
onlyAmer- 
City  in  the 


Kansas  City  is  the  greatest 
ket  west  of  the  Mississippi 
cago  and  New  York  are  the 
ican  cities  which  surpass  Kansas 
value  of  tlieir  meat-packing  industries. 


eastern  terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad,  and  is 
at  the  southwestern  end  of  Lake  Superior.  This  city  is 
the  outlet  of  the  wheat  district  in  the  Red  river  prairies. 

Winona  is  a lumber  market  on  the  Mississippi  river. 

North  Dakota.  This  state  lies  north  of  the  corn  belt, 
but  its  wheat  district  in  the  Red  river  valley  has  no 
superior.  A large  part  of  this  state  affords  excellent 
grazing  land  for  cattle  and  sheep.  Fargo  and 
Bismarck,  though  small,  are  the  most  impor- 
tant trade  centers. 

South  Dakota.  The  prairies  in  the 
northeast  part  of  this  state  form  a por- 
tion of  the  famous  wheat  region  which 
extends  also  into  North  Dakota.  The 
southeast  part  of  South  Dakota  is  in 
the  corn  belt. 

Sioux  Falls  and  Pierre  are  points  of 
supply  for  this  state. 

The  Black  hills,  with  their  valuable 
gold  mines,  lie  mostly  within  the  west- 
ern part  of  South  Dakota. 

Nebraska.  The  best  farming  land  of 
Nebraska,  as  of  the  two  Dakotas,  is  in  the  eastern  half 
of  the  state.  Corn  is  the  most  valuable  product.  The 
other  half  of  the  state  forms  part  of  the  Western  plains 
where  cattle-raising  is  the  chief  occupation. 


Each  year  thousands  of 
cattle  from  the  Texas  prairies  are  sent  north  to  be  fattened  in  the 
corn  area  of  Kansas  and  the  neighboring  states. 

Topeka,  Wichita  and  Leavenworth  are  important  market  centers  in 
the  grain  and  cattle  districts. 


Yucca  Trees,  Mohave  Desert. 


158.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Locate  this  group  of  states  and  territories  ? Which  are  territo- 
ries  ? See  lesson  125. 

Wliat  portion  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  our  country  is  due  east  of 
California  ? Which  is  farther  north,  — San  Francisco  or  St.  Louis? 

If  a ship  were  to  sail  due  west  from  San  Francisco,  what  large 
Asiatic  island  would  it  reach  ? 

What  do  the  maps  on  pages  21,  24,  128  and  129  show 
about  the  climate  of  this  group  of  states  ? 

Describe  the  park  region  of  Colorado.  See  lesson 
34-  Describe  the  Colorado  plateaus.  See 
lesson  38.  How  does  the  Basin  region  differ 
from  the  Colorado  plateau  region  ? 

In  what  respects  does  the  valley  of  Califor- 
nia resemble  the  plain  of  Chile  ? See  lessons 
jfi  and  57.  What  are  the  principal  products 
of  the  Southwestern  states  ? See  lessons  ISO, 
134-,  136  and  143. 

Locate  the  capitals  of  the  states  and  terri- 
tories in  this  group. 

159.  Southwestern  Group. 

This  group  of  states  and  territories 
includes  several  regions  whose  industries 
differ  widely  from  one  another.  On  the  east  are  the 
grazing  lands  of  the  Western  plain.  Next  on  the  west  is 
the  rich  mining  district  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  Still 
farther  west  and  Southwest  are  the  thinly  settled  Basin 


SOUTH  WESTERN  GROUP. 


155 


from  112  Greenwich  110 


118  Longitude  116 


West  114 


>A^»Bøxelder 


;arora 


Winneinu» 


.Collins  i 


imm 

‘V  £n.H 

£ /SShrini 


uftralfCn-y.  # « 


• wortl 


!*Élg; 


Colorado 


Walkeri 


Richfield 


> GleVilJen, 
_8»n 

5AN  i 
FBANCISCØ 

O Santa  d 


rfcar i»«fi 


Pneblo 


ictnish  Peahs 


MEm 


Raton' 


. 


OwmtL  L. 


.F  “fare 


(SANTWTE-' 


W/?s  Pk. 


k8  Vegas 


'bUQUERQUE 
[ E X 


Flagstaff 


C°nceptio^t^^^^[ 
SarUa' Barbara 


iLKNOESTAC/ 

L.  OR 
’STAKED  PEAU 


Rjorro 


r i'  i-,  \ li 

ingerville*-.|i 

\ ;i 


SAN  W 
NICOLAS 


Teinpe 


Sa  It  on  IA 


SAN\£ 
CLEMENTE  I. 


Florence 


SarrDlegfA 


^>M»vfine*SA K FR  y \XJ8C0 
and  Vicinitij 

l,,,.,  A 8CALE  OF  MILES  j 
frUJ  . & : um J-SS3  i 

0-,  5 10  15 

Diablo 


;Fort  Grantl 


TUCSON 


Tombstont 

• Bisbee 


'Vj  'I.iwmore* 
VH»y«arda  , - 

PltUMaiuoo*  i * ^ 

i 'a.  m c n A 


SOUTIIWESTERN 

GROUP 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


SANT  V\d,L{ 
Santa  Clara* 'k 


MBXtCO 


West 


from 


Greenwich  110 


Longitude  116 


region  and  the  Colorado  plateaus.  In  the  Sierra  Nevada 
is  another  mining  belt  and  a lumber  district.  The  valley 
of  California  is  one  of  the  finest  wheat  and  grape  regions 
in  the  world.  The  Southern  portion  of  this  state  excels 
in  high  grades  of  oranges.  The  Coast  range  yields 
excellent  lumber. 

California  contains  more  than  half  the  people  in  this 
group  of  states  and  territories,  yet  even  this  great  state 
has  a population  smaller  than  that  of  New  York  d^yv 


The  raising  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  the  principal  industry. 
Silver  ore  is  mined  in  this  state. 

Santa  Fé  and  Albuquerque  are  the  chief  trade  centers. 
The  former  is  the  second  oldest  town  in  our  country. 

Utah.  This  state  ranks  tliird  in  the  production  of 
silver,  — Colorado  being  first,  and  Montana  second.  Some 
portions  of  Utah,  especially  along  the  small  river  valleys, 
are  irrigated.  They  yield  grain  and  vegetables. 

P 


Colorado.  Denver  is  a supply  city  for  mining  districts 
in  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  for  cattle  ranclies  on  the 
Western  plains.  Few  cities  in  our  country  have  had 
a more  rapid  growth  than  Denver. 

Pueblo  and  Leadville  have  large  smelting  works.  The 
latter  city  is  in  the  heart  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  nearly 
two  miles  above  sea  level.  Tt  has  heen  one  of  the 
greatest  silver-mining  cities  in  the  world. 

Colorado  Springs  is  a well-known  resort  for  invalids. 

New  Mexico.  This  territory  is  inostly  in  the  basin  of 
the  Rio  Grande. 


Salt  Lake  City  and  Ogden  are  important  railroad  centers 
and  points  of  supply. 

Arizona.  Silver  and  copper  are  the  principal  products 
of  the  mines  in  this  territory.  Arizona  ranks  high  in 
the  output  of  copper. 

There  are  good  irrigated  farms  in  the  basin  of  the  Gila 
river,  west  of  the  Colorado  plateau  region. 

Tucson  and  Phenix  have  a large  trade  in  outfits  for  miners. 

Nevada.  Silver  and  gold  mining  rank  first  among 
tiiis  state’s  industries.  The  greater  part  of  Nevada  is  a 
sagebrush  desert. 


156 


NORTHWESTERN  GROUP. 


Virginia  and  Carson  City  are  well-known  mining  centers. 


161.  Northwestern  Group. 


California.  San  Francisco  is  the  natural  outlet  for 
the  products  of  the  valley  of  California.  More  wheat  is 
exported  from  this  seaport  than  from  any  other  Amer- 
ican city.  It  leads  also  in  the  refining  of  sugar. 

San  Francisco  has  a large  inland  trade  in  wheat,  flour 
and  fruits.  The  principal  manufactures  of  the  city  are 
clothing,  boots  and  shoes. 

Among  the  imports  are  silk  and  tea  from  China  and 
Japan,  and  sugar 
from  Honolulu. 

Tliere  is  a 
large  navy 
yard 


The  industries  in  this  group  of  states  are  similar  to 
those  in  the  group  on  the  south.  There  are  the  grazing 
districts  of  the  Western  plains,  the  mining  regions  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  the  barren  lava  plains,  the  wheat  lands 
in  the  Willamette  valley,  the  forested  slopes  of  the  Cas- 
cade and  Coast  ranges. 

These  five  states  together  have  a population  less  than 
that  of  either  New  York  or  Chicago. 

Montana.  The  chief  occupations 
in  this  state  are 
mining  and  cat- 
tle-raising. 


on  an 
arm  of  San 
north ward  from  the  Golden  Gate. 

Los  Angeles  is  the  largest  trade  center  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. This  city  is  an  active  fruit  market. 

Oakland  is  on  the  east  shore  of  San  Francisco  bay. 
Ferries  cross  the  bay  between  these  cities. 

Oakland  is  largely  a city  of  residences.  It  is  the  home 
of  many  persons  whose  business  is  in  San  Francisco. 

Sacramento,  the  Capital,  has  a large  trade  in  wheat. 


in  Montana 
than  in  any 
other  state  in  the 
Union.  Colorado 

alone  surpasses  it  in  the  production  of  silver. 

The  gold  mines  of  Montana  are  very  productive. 

Both  Helena  and  Butte  have  a large  trade  in  mining 
outfits.  There  are  also  extensive  smelting  works  in  these 
cities. 


160.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Which  is  farther  north,  — Portland  (Oregon)  or  Montreal  ? 

Refer  to  the  maps  on  pages  21,  24,  128  and  129,  and  describe 
the  cliraate  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  this  group.  In  what  respect 
does  the  climate  of  eastern  Montana  differ  from  that  of  western 
Washington  ? How  do  you  account  for  the  difference  in  climate 
between  Oregon  and  New  England? 

In  what  direction  do  the  Rocky  mountains  extend  across  this 
group  of  states?  Which  of  the  states  are  partly  in  the  Western 
plains  ? What  valuable  minerals  are  found  in  Montana  ? See  les- 
sons  14S  and  H-k- 

What  part  of  this  section  is  buried  in  ancient  lava-flows  ? See 
lesson  39.  Describe  the  Cascade  range ; the  Coast  range.  See  les- 
sons  36  and  Jfl.  Why  is  the  seacoast  northward  from  Puget  sound 
so  irregular  ? See  lesson  Jfi.  Name  the  state  capitals  in  this  group. 

Alaska.  — Locate  Sitka.  See  map  on  page  126.  Which  is  far- 
ther  north,  — Sitka  or  St.  Petersburg  ? 

Why  is  the  climate  of  southwestern  Alaska  so  mild?  What 
are  the  principal  products  of  Alaska  ? See  lesson  J/l. 


Wyoming.  This  state  has  few  mines,  but  it  has  im- 
mense  cattle  ranches.  Cheyenne  and  Laramie  are  the 
principal  trade  centers.  The  former  city  is  one  of  the 
largest  cattle  markets  in  America,  because  it  is  the  only 
shipping  point  for  a large  grazing  area. 

The  greater  portion  of  Yellowstone  park  is  in  north- 
west  Wyoming. 

Idaho.  Mining  is  the  chief  industry  of  Idaho,  — with 
silver,  gold  and  lead  as  the  products.  The  river  valleys 
in  the  northern  part  of  this  state  form  a very  productive 
wheat  district. 

Boise  is  the  Capital  and  the  trade  center  of  Idaho. 

Oregon.  The  portion  of  this  state  east  of  the  Cascade 
range  has  large  cattle  ranches.  The  Willamette  valley 
is  an  excellent  wheat  district.  Many  sheep  are  also 
raised  here.  The  Cascade  and  Coast  ranges  are  heavily 


NORTHWESTERN  GROUP. 


157 


REGI  N A 


\0kanagan  L. 


Sarriso 

jBOCOUVf 


Jainej 


•"''■li.:. 


5°a-K 


(Ft.Assraal 


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Wuihii  r 

Wnllaoe 


Ft.Bentoi 


Spokane 

Choney  * 


Gr  eat  F») 


Tacoma; 

'ItiraJMj 


Missoul; 


hilouse  vi 

> MoscoW 


1 Colfax" 


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lillipsWrg 

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V B 


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O åg 


reiser 


^ Idaho  Fallj 
Blackfo^feu. 
PocataHf5 


Vielsen 


'Dougl*9 


i i-lione 


Albert  L. 


■^Warner» 
Christina».. 
, Lake» 


Wyomm 

jntpelier  ^ 


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Lakeview) 


RavrUn3 


Klainath 


Hhett 


Rock 

Springs 


.Evahaion 


1 57  OKTHWE  STERI7 
L GROUP 


OENVER/ 


118  Longitude 


112  Greenwich  110 


West 


forested,  and  they  yield  valuable  lumber  products.  There 
are  extensive  salmon  fisberies  in  the  Columbia  river. 

Portland,  on  the  Willamette  branch  of  the  Columbia 
river,  is  the  commercial  center  of  the  state. 

Salem,  the  Capital,  is  in  the  wheat  and  the  wool  district 
of  the  Willamette  valley. 

Washington.  The  industries  of  this  state  resemble 
those  of  Oregon.  Wheat  is  the  leading  product  of  middle 


The  shore  waters  and  the  rivers  of  Alaska  abound  in 
salmon.  The  canning  of  this  kind  of  fish  is  a very  im- 
portant industry.  Fur  seals  in  large  numbers  are  taken 
on  the  Pribilof  islands. 

Sitka  is  the  Capital  of  the  territory.  Considerable  gold 
is  mined  in  the  district  around  Juneau.  See  map  of  United 
States  in  the  supplement. 

The  first  white  settlers  in  Alaska  were  Russian  fur 


and  southeast  Washington.  The  country  around  Puget 
sound  is  one  of  the  best  lumber  districts  in  the  world. 
Coal  also  abounds  here.  Washington  shares  with  Oregon 
the  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  river. 

Seattle  and  Tacoma  are  important  cities  on  Puget  sound. 
They  have  excellent  harbors  and  are  the  trade  centers  of 
the  state.  Both  are  large  lumber  markets. 

Spokane  is  the  center  of  trade  in  eastern  Washington. 
This  city  has  fine  water  power. 

Alaska.  Two  thirds  of  the  people  in  this  territory 
are  Indians.  The  otliers  are  white  settlers  and  Eskimos. 


traders.  In  1867  Russia  sold  Alaska  to  the  United  States 
for  $7,200,000.  This  is  a small  sum  compared  with  the 
value  of  the  furs,  the  fish,  the  gold  and  the  lumber  which 
this  northern  region  yields. 

Alaska  is  about  one  sixth  as  large  as  the  rest  of  our 
country,  but  only  a small  portion  of  this  territory  is 
suitable  for  the  hornes  of  white  people. 

The  best  part  of  Alaska  is  the  Southwest  Coastal 
region. 

Rainfall  is  plentiful  in  this  northern  land,  but  the 
warm  season  is  too  short  to  ripen  gram. 


118  Longitude  116  West  114  froin  112  Greenwich  110 


158 


CANADA,  MEXICO,  WEST  INDIES. 


162.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Kote  : The  Dominion  of  Canada  consists  of  various  provinces,  districts 
and  territories.  Kova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  New  Brunswick, 
Quebec,  Ontario,  Manitoba  and  British  Columbia  are  provinces;  the  other 
divisions,  except  the  Northwest  and  the  Northeast  territories,  are  districts. 
The  province  of  Newfoundland,  including  the  northern  district  of  Labrador, 
is  not  a part  of  Canada ; but  both  Newfoundland  and  Canada  belong  to  the 
British  Empire. 

What  large  bodies  of  water  partly  surround  the  province  of 
Ontario  ? What  river  separates  Ontario  from  New  York  ? Tkrough 
what  province  does  the  St.  Lawrence  river  flow  ? 

Locate  Nova  Scotia  ; — New  Brunswick ; — Prince  Edward 
Island.  What  large  island  forrns  the  northern  part  of  the  province 
of  Nova  Scotia  ? Between  what  provinces  is  the  bay  of  Fundy  ? 


winter  climate  of  Canada,  except  in  British  Columbia 
and  southeast  Ontario,  is  more  severe  than  that  of  the 
states  along  our  northern  border. 

The  best  portion  of  Canada  is  the  region  lying  among 
lakes  Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  thence  extending 
along  the  St.  Lawrence  river  to  Quebec.  This  region  in- 
cludes  parts  of  both  Ontario  and  Quebec.  Barley  and 
wheat  thrive  here  ; soft-wood  forests  abound  ; and  large 
numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle  find  excellent  pasturage. 

In  this  productive  area  are  found  most  of  the  large 
cities  of  Canada.  Among  these  are  Montreal,  Toronto, 
Quebec,  Hamilton  and  Ottawa.  These  cities  have  a large 
trade  in  lumber,  barley,  sheep  and  wool,  cattle  and  liides. 

Newfoundland  and  the  provinces  of 

Canada  on 
the  gulf  of 


Which  province  of  Canada  includes  a portion  of  the  Bed  river 
basin  ? What  large  lake  lies  partly  within  this  province  ? 

Name  three  districts  drained  chiefly  by  the  Saskatchewan  river. 
What  district  and  province  meet  in  the  Bocky  mountains  ? Which 
province  is  almost  wholly  within  the  Bocky  Mountain  highland  ? 
Name  a large  island  belonging  to  this  province. 

Name  three  large  lakes  that  form  part  of  the  Mackenzie  system. 
In  what  territory  is  the  greater  part  of  the  Mackenzie  basin? 
What  do  the  maps  on  pages  21  and  24  show  about  the  climate  of 
Canada  ? See  also  lessons  48,  52  and  127. 

• 163.  Canada  and  Newfoundland. 

Canada  is  about  equal  in  area  to  the  United  States,  but 
the  population  of  the  former  is  less  than  one  twelfth  that 
of  the  latter.1  The  provinces  of  Canada,  — in  their  sur- 
face,  their  products  and  their  climate,  — resemble  the 
portions  of  our  country  which  they  adjoin;  but  the 

1 A large  part  of  Canada  once  belonged  to  France,  and  many  people  of 
French  desoent  live  in  this  portion  of  North  America.  They.  are  now 
greatiy  outnumbered  by  the  English-speaking  population. 


St.  Lawrence  have  exten- 
sive  fisheries.  Halifax  and 
St.  John’s  send  large  quantities  of  codfish  to  our  country. 
Most  of  these  fish  are  caught  on  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land. 

New  Brunswick,  like  Maine,  is  in  the  forest  belt.  St. 
John  exports  lumber,  largely  to  the  United  States. 

The  province  of  Manitoba  includes  parts  of  the  Red 
river  prairie  region.  Winnipeg  therefore  exports  wheat. 
British  Columbia,  like  the  state  of  Washington,  has  valu- 
able  coal  mines,  forests  and  fisheries.  This  province 
yields  large  amounts  of  gold.  The  chief  city  of  the  prov- 
ince is  Victoria,  on  Vancouver  Island. 

164.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Mexico.  What  bodies  of  water  partly  surround  Mexico  ? De- 
scribe  the  highland  of  Mexico.  See  lesson  42.  What  have  you 
learned  about  the  coastal  region  of  this  country  ? Where  is  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepeo  ? 


MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  WEST  INDIES. 


159 


•O  rO\  M<Vo , 


•Catnom 


^fcjEWFOUI 

X 


h*ufax 


£ Comparative  Area 


DOMINION  OF 
CANADA 


PENNSYLVANIA 
45,000  SQ  MILES' 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


West 


Greenwich 


Refer  to  the  maps  on 
pages  21  and  24,  and  tell 
what  you  can  about  the 
climate  of  Mexico.  See 
also  lesson  Jfé.  Tell  what 
you  know  about  the 
people  of  Mexico,  and 
their  form  of  government. 
See  lessons  98  and  103. 


Central  America. 

Between  what  bodies  of 
water  do  the  states  of 
Central  America  lie  ? 

What  nation  Controls 
Balize  ? See  lesson  103. 

Which  of  the  Central 
American  states  adjoin 
Mexico  ? Which  is  the 
smallest  state  in  this 
group  ? Between  which 
states  is  Lake  Nicaragua? 

What  have  you  learned 
about  this  lake  ? See 
lesson  43.  Where  is  the 
Mosquito  coast?  Of  what 
country  is  the  isthmus  of 
Panama  a part  ? 

Describe  the  surface  and  the  climate  of  Central  America.  Locate 
the  following  cities  and  towns : New  Guatemala,  Managua,  Blue- 
fields,  San  Jose. 


West  Indies.  Locate  Cuba,  Haiti,  Jamaica,  Puerto  Bico,  the 
Leeward  islands,  the  Windward  islands. 

What  do  the  maps  on  pages  21  and  24  show  about  the  climate  of 
the  West  Indies  ? Where  are  the  following  cities  : Havana  ? Port 
au  Prince  ? Santo  Domingo  ? Kingston  ? Nassau  ? 


165.  Mexico,  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies. 


Mexico  has  rich  mines  of  silver  and  other  minerals. 
The  most  valuable  mines  are  in  the  region  of  the  Sierra 
Madre.  This  country  has  few  mills  or  factories.  The 
chief  manufacture  is  cotton  cloth. 

The  teading  exports  from  Mexico  to  the  United  States 
are  silver,  coffee  and  cattle.  Our  country  sends  cloth  and 
hardware  to  Mexico.  The  trade  is  carried  on  largely 
across  the  Rio  Grande,  as  well  as  through  the  ports  of 
Vera  Cruz  on  the  east,  and  Acapulco  on  the  south. 


A\e  SReron 


Mexico.  About 
nine  tenths  of  the 
people  of  Mexico  live 
in  the  uplands,  where 
there  is  good  farming 
and  grazing  land. 
Cattle-raising  is  here 
a leading  industry. 
Among  the  agricul- 
tural  products  are  cof- 
fee, cotton,  sugar  cane 
and  tobacco. 

In  some  parts  of 
Mexico,  especially  in  Yu- 
catan,  is  raised  a variety 
of  eentury  plant  that 
yields  a kind  of  fiber 
known  as  Sisal  hemp. 
This  hemp  is  shipped  in 
large  quantities  to  our 
country  where  it  is  used 
in  making  rope  and  twine. 


Greenwich 


110 Longitude 


100  West  from 


Mqtjc  cceaX 


SaltJJl*  5^on'ercy  yfGtamoros 


V,  SOUTH 

^S^AWERICA 


fampico 


ACKUH  i 


OWentet 


TV  JW  E X I CJO  Vf  . 

Vo 

0 po  c ate  P fi 


.BALIZE 


■Acapulot 


jlondurat 


Å g r 

«****12 


MEXICO  ^ 

CENTRAL  AMERICA  AND 
I WEST  INDIES 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


*C.Gracias- 


Somparative  Area: 


AP,!  ^BlueBclda 


■CXfcfc  as 


PENNSYLVANIA 
45,000  SQ.  MILES' 


Greenwich 


West  from 


Longitude 


4— v 

vfNl  s( 

t)i 

A & 

S(e 

sv 

^Charleston 

\ui  V 

1 >-i  > 

l Vp 

•4'n 

\Orl 

w f 

ATLANTIC 

W/-i  V.  pi/  Calveaton 

V "ft  \ 

OCEA  N 

F 

O 

F 

L 0 1 
\ * \ 
O ' 

4 

V 

6X.BAHAHA  j 

***\ tABAC0  V 

11  r adle y .j-  I bates.  Engr's,  R.  V. 


160 


MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  WEST  INDIES. 


Mexico,  the  Capital  and  principal  city  of  the  republic, 
has  a population  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

Central  America.  The  small  / n.  republics  in 
Central  America  do  not  , form  a 

Union  like  the  states  in 
our  own  country  or 
in  Mexico.  A 
large  part  of 
the  foreign 
trade  of  Central 
America  is  with 
United  States.  These 
small  tropical 


islands  to  Great  Britain.  The  island  of  Haiti  comprises 
the  two  small  republics  of  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo. 

There  are  about  as  many  people  in  Cuba  as  in  the  city 
of  New  York.  Two  thirds  of  the  population  of  the  island 
are  of  Spanish  descent,  but  there  are  many  Negroes. 
Havana,  the  Capital  and  chief  seaport,  is  one  of  the  great- 

est  sugar  m arkets  in 
the  world. 

There  are  nearly  as 
many  people  in  the 
island  of  Haiti  as  in 
Cuba.  The  western 


countries  send  us  coffee,  bananas,  rubber 
and  indigo.  Our  country  exports  cloth  and 
hardware  to  the  Central  American  republics. 

West  Indies.  The  name  West  Indies  is  given  to  the 
groups  of  islands  which  partly  inclose  the  gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbean  sea.  The  products  of  these  islands 
are  similar  to  those  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  but 

the  most  valuable  are 
sugar,  tobacco  and 
coffee.  Cuba  and 
Puerto  Rico  belong 
to  Spain;  Jamaica 
and  the  Bahama 


half  of  the  island  of  Haiti 
is  settled  chiefly  by  Negroes  ; 
the  eastern  half  has  a 
mixed  population  of  Negroes  and  people  of  Spanish 
descent.  The  latter  outnumber  the  former.  Port  au 
Prince  and  Santo  Domingo  are  the  principal  cities  of  the 
island. 

Jamaica  and  the  Bahama  islands  are  peopled  largely  by 
Negroes,  but  there  are  also  many  British  settlers.  Kingston 
and  Nassau  are  the  commercial  centers  of  these  islands. 

San  Juan  is  the  principal  city  of  Puerto  Rico.  Barbados 
is  a very  thickly-settled  island  belonging  to  the  British 
nation.  This  nation  possesses  most  of  the  Leeward  and 
the  Windward  islands.  France  Controls  a few  of  them. 


Westminster  Palace,  on  the  Thames,  London. 


Canada  & Greenland 


EUEOPE. 


161 


6CALE  OF  MILES 


• Mancl 


jVIENNA 


'wiTZKR 


COMPARATIVE  AREA 


€baleaR'0'S' 


400  MILES 


PENNSYLVANIA 


45,000  SQ.  MILES 


THIS  RECTANGLE  CONTAINS 
100,000  SQ.  MILES 


Greenwich  40 


166.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 


Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark.  What  part  of  the  coast  of 

ttti  • , , t u'  , • „ , , . , „ North  America  lies  due  west  of  Norway?  How  do  you  account 

Which  parts  of  Europe  are  mountainous  ? Which  are  lowland  ? „ . , J J 

for  the  mildness  of  the  climate  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway  ? See 

lesson  82. 


In  what  two  regions  do  most  of  the  large  ri  vers  of  Europe  rise  ? 

What  countries  are  grouped  about  the  Swiss  plateau  ? Which 
of  these  countries  border  on  the  Mediterranean  sea  or  its  branches  ? 


Describe  the  surface  of  Norway  and  Sweden.  Into  what  sea 
and  gulf  do  most  of  the  rivers  of  Sweden  flow  ? What  are  some 


What  countries  are  wholly  or  partly  included  in  Low  Europe  ? 

-tun  ■ r ,,  , . , j ,,  , . oi  the  products  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  ? 

Which  of  these  countries  border  on  the  North  sea  ? — On  the  ...  „ „ , 


Baltic  sea  ? What  countries  lie  along  the  west  coast  of  the  Black 
sea?  What  countries  are  crossed  by  the  Arctic  circle  ? 


What  kind  of  surface  has  Denmark?  What  country  adjoins 


it  on  the  south  ? What 


sea  is  on  the  west? 


30  Longitude 


Longitude 


West 


0 Longitude  10  East  20  from  30  Greenwich 

" 1 ~ ~ E 


E UB OPP 


Where  is  the  Ægean  sea? — The  Adriatic  sea?  — The  bay  of 
Biscay  ? — The  gulf  of  Bothnia  ? — The  sea  of  Azov  ? 

Spaix  and  Portugal.  What  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
America  is  due  west  of  Spain  ? In  what  direction  are  the  British 
Isles  from  the  Spanish  peninsula  ? Locate  Portugal. 

Describe  the  surface  of  the  Spanish  peninsula.  See  lesson  78. 
What  do  you  know  about  its  climate  ? Name  the  principal  prod- 
ucts of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

What  bodies  of  water  partly  surround  the  Spanish  peninsula  ? 
What  nation  Controls  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar  ? Where  are  the  Bale- 
aric  islands  ? 


Russia.  Describe  the  surface  of  Russia.  See  lesson.  85.  How 
were  the  many  lakes  and  falls  of  Finland  formed  ? 

Describe  the  climate  of  the  great  Russian  plain.  See  maps  on 
pages  21  and  2 Jf.;  also  lesson  85.  What  are  the  leading  products 
of  Russia  ? 

Describe  the  course  of  the  Volga  river ; — of  the  Ural  river. 
Where  is  the  Dwina  river  ? — The  Dnieper  rive»? 

Locate  Lake  Ladoga ; — the  gulf  of  Finland. 

Name  the  seas  which  partly  surround  Russia.  On  what  large 
bodies  of  water  would  a vessel  sail  in  going  from  Odessa  to  St. 
Petersburg  ? What  countries  of  Europe  border  on  Russia  ? 


162 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


167.  Re  vie  w and  Map  Study. 

Describe  the  surface  of  Scotland  ; — of  England;  — of  Wales; 
— of  Ireland.  See  map  on  opposite  page ; also  lesson  83.  Locate 
the  Cheviot  hills  ; — the  Grampians  ; — Ben-lSTevis  ; — Snowdon. 

What  part  of  Ireland  is  drained  by  the  Shannon  river  ? Why 
are  the  Thanres  and  the  Mersey  rivers  so  deep  ? See  lesson  83. 
What  have  you  learned  about  the  basin  of  the  Clyde  river?  Why 
is  the  north  west  coast  of  the  British  Isles  so  irregular  ? 


of  the  Cabinet  supervise  the  foreign  affairs,  the  treasury,  the  army 
and  other  departments. 

The  British  Isles  constitute  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  The  United  Kingdom,  with  all  British  colonies  and 
other  possessions,  forms  the  British  Empire.  The  ruler  of  this 
empire  appoints  a Governor  or  a Governor-  General  for  each  colony. 
Some  of  the  colonies  take  no  part  in  governing  themselves.  Others 
elect  their  own  officers,  except  Governors ; but  the  British  ruler 
retains  authority  to  veto  any  bill  passed  by  a colonial  government. 


The  fiords  of  Scotland  are 
called  firths;  what  firth  partly 
separates  England  from  Scot- 
land ? Where  is  the  firth  of 
Clyde  ? — The  firth  of  Forth  ? 

Locate  the  Irish  sea ; — St. 

George’s  channel ; — English 
channel  ; — strait  of  Dover  ; 

— Dublin  bay.  Where  are  the 
Orkney  islands  ? — The  Shet- 
land islands  ? — The  Hebrides  ? 

On  what  bodies  of  water 
would  a vessel  sail  in  going 
from  New  York  to  Liverpool  ? 

— - From  New  Orleans  to 
London?  Describe  the 
steamer  route  from  London 
to  Bombay  ; — Liverpool  to 
Hamburg. 

What  have  you  learned 
about  the  occupations  of  the 
people  in  the  British  Isles  ? 

See  lesson  83. 

168.  The  British  Isles. 

The  government  of  the 
British  Isles  is  a limited 
inonarchy.  The  ruler 
holds  office  by  claim  of  birth,  but  her  authority  is  limited. 
The  law-making  power  is  given  to  Parliament.1 

Parliament  consists  of  two  bodies,  — the  House  of  Commons  and 
the  House  of  Lor(Js.  The  members  of  the  former  are  elected  by 
the  people  ; the  members  of  the  latter  are  nobles  and  bishops. 

The  execution  of  the  laws  is  in  the  hands  of  a Prime  Minister 
who  is  assisted  by  a Cabinet.  As  in  our  government,  the  members 

1 Parliament  meets  in  Westminster  palace,  London.  See  page  160. 


The  large  British  possessions, 
such  as  the  provinces  of 
Canada,  and  the  colonies  of 
Australia,  — have  Parliaments 
of  their  own. 

The  foreign  commerce 
of  the  British  Isles  is  car- 
ried  on  mostly  through  the 
great  ports  of  London, 
Liverpool  and  Glasgow. 
London  Controls  most  of 
the  British  trade  with 
India,  Australia  and  the 
mainland  of  Europe  ; also 
a large  part  of  the  trade 
with  tropical  America. 

From  China  and  India,  this 
great  port  reeeives  tea,  silk, 
sugar,  coffee,  spices,  indigo 
and  other  products  of  south- 
east  Asia.  Greece  sends  cur- 
rants  ; Italy  and  Spain  send 
olive  oil  and  wine. 

From  the  Baltic  ports,  ship- 
loads  of  lumber,  wheat,  cattle 
and  wool  reach  London. 
Steamers  from  tropical  America  bring  sugar,  coffee,  hides,  rubber 
and  cocoa.  Australia  ships  chiefly  wool  and  gold. 

London,  with  its  great  trade,  has  grown  to  be  the 
largest  city  and  one  of  the  chief  seaports  in  the  world. 

Liverpool  is  the  principal  port  for  the  manufacturing 
district  of  northwest  England.  This  port  reeeives  the 
raw  materials  from  abroad,  and  ships  away  the  manu- 
faetured  products. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


1G3 


Longitude 


OCEa.y 


■ctu»? 


, 5 aORKN^Y 


pomona| 


gSlSLANDS 
i tland  Firth 
DunoansbtJ 


C.Wrath 


8HETI 


LAND 


'HALSE  Y, 


LANDS 


Samburah  Heacr 


fair  i. 


NORTH  ( 
RONALDSHA 


WESTRA  i 


ksANDi 


ROWSA, 


kSTRONSA 


Åberde,én, 


ORKNEY 


l#^ISLANDS  P1 
* -«.RONALDSHA 
f Hand  Firth  ^ 

fDuncansby 

\ »“■  ^ i 


rBén-j 

iNieCiiSy 


TIREE  I. 


Canals 


latbridge 


EDINBURGBv 


iPaisley 


Mal  in  Hd. 


>underland 


f lid  fatt  Z. 


\/lull  of 
Gallouay 


L.St  ranfffurdl 


amborough  Head 


Dnndalk' 


achill  i. 


Mor  tea  >n  bey&ay 1 


>undalk  Bay 

\ I R I S H S 


Mouth  of  the 
s.  Huviber 


iolton  • 
Salford1 


Oldham- 


Houith  Hd. 
I y 

Jublin  Bay 
1 l 


Liverpool! 


Sheffield 


> ndujdon 


icttingham. 


Cardigan 

Bay 


itratford- 
oi^  A vita 


' '•Cambridge- 


Blacku.'ateT__ 


Carnsare 


pltirrici 


febnstown 

Ilarbor 


of>K' 

■Ck  1 

1 Forela  nd 


C.C/ear 


Carmart 


.Croydot» 


!l  C haiind 


.Hastini 


Cortiparative  Area 


Fd dytt  One  L.H. 


SCILLY  15. 


Lizard  Pt. 


CHANNEL  IS. 


Havre 


GUERNSEY. 


THE  WHOLE  RECTANGLE 
CONTAINS  5,000 
SQL/ARE  MILES 


JERSEY. 


West 


from 


The  United  States  sends  more  produets  to  Liverpool  than  to  any 
other  port  in  the  world.  Most  valuable  among  these  are  cotton, 
grain  and  meats.  Large  quantities  of  wool  are  sent  from  the  Argen- 
tine  Republic  and  from  Australia  to  Liverpool. 

The  exports  of  Liverpool  are  mostly  cotton,  woolen  and  silk 
cloth;  cutlery  and  other 
kinds  of  hardware ; heavy 
iron  goods,  such  as  en- 
gines,  rails  and  armor 
plates. 

The  rise  and  fall  of 
the  tide  in  the  Mersey 
at  Liverpool  is  so  great 
that  many  steamers  enter 
inclosed  doeks  to  load 
and  unload.  In  these 
doeks  the  water  can  al- 
ways  be  kept  at  the  same 
le  vel.  Other  steamers  use 
great  landing  stages  that 
float,  ■ — rising  and  falling 
with  the  tide. 

Glasgow  leads  all 
other  cities  in  ship- 
building.  The  success 
of  this  city  in  making 
iron  steamships  is  due 
chiefly  to  its  excel- 
lent  harbor,  its  near- 
ness  to  mines  of  coal 
and  iron  ore,  as  well 
as  to  its  skilled  work- 
men.  Glasgow  carries 
on  a large  foreign 
trade  for  the  manu- 
faeturing  district  of 
Southern  Scotland. 

Manchester  is  one 
of  the  cities  which 
owe  their  growth  to 
the  nearness  of  coal 
and  iron.  This  city 
has  the  largest  cotton 
mills  in  the  world. 

Great  quantities  of 
woolen  cloth  also  are 
made  liere. 

A ship  canal  has  lately 
been  built  from  Man- 
chester to  the  tidal  por- 
tion of  the  Mersey  river. 

Ocean  steamers  laden 
with  cotton  or  wool  can  now  reach  this  city,  and  thus  save  the 
cost  of  transfer  by  railroad  from  Liverpool. 

Birmingham  is  famous  for  its  work  in  metals,  — iron, 
copper  and  brass.  Ainong  its  best-known  produets  are 
screws,  nails,  pens  and  firearms.  Sheffield  manufaetures 


heavy  iron  goods  and  cutlery.  Bradford  is  noted  for  its 
woolen  manufaetures.  Cambridge  and  Oxford  have  famous 
universities.  Dublin  is  the  center  of  trade  for  middle 
Ireland.  Belfast  manufaetures  fine  Irish  linens. 


Cardiff  is  the  seat  of  the  coal  and  the  iron  trade  of 
Southern  Wales. 

Edinburgh,  the  Capital  of  Scotland,  contains  several 
colleges.  Dundee  has  the  largest  linen  mills  in  Great 
Britain. 


West 


from 


2 Greenwich 


SHETLAND  ISLANDS 

and 

ORKNEY  ISLANDS 

Same  Scale  unst 


innaird  Hd. 

1 o 


BBITIS1I  ISLES 


Longitude 


E&et 


164 


LOW  EUROPE,  — WESTERN  PART. 


170.  Countries  of  Low  Europe,  — Western  Part. 

Germany.  Germany  has  rich  coal  and  iron  mines, 
beds  of  clay  for  making  porcelain,  and  sand  for  making 
glass.  The  river  valleys  of  this  country  are  famous  for 
their  wine  grapes.  Large  areas  are  planted  with  sugar 
beets  and  with  cereals. 

This  country  imports  cotton  from  the  United  States  ; wool  and 
flax  from  Russia  and  Hungary;  raw  silk  from  Italy. 


France.  Into  what  bodies  of 
water  do  the  Rhone,  the  Gironde 
and  the  Seine  ri  vers  flow  ? "What 
strait  separates  France  from  Eng- 
land ? What  mountains  partly 
separate  France  from  Germany?  Name 
the  mountain  range  between  France  and 
Spain. 

Describe  the  surface  of  France.  See 
lessons  77  and  84-  What  are  some  of 
the  products  of  this  country  ? Where 
is  Corsica? 

Belgium,  the  Netherlands  and 
Denmark.  What  empire  is  east  of 
Belgium  aud  the  Netherlands  ? On 
what  sea  do  they  border  ? 

Describe  the  surface  of  the  land 
along  the  southeast  shore  of  the  North 
sea.  See  lesson  84- 

Italy.  What  mountains  separate 
Italy  from  France  and  Switzerland? 

What  country  adjoins  Italy  on  the 
northeast  ? Name  the  bodies  of  water 
whieh  partly  surround  this  peninsula. 

Describe  the  Po  valley,  and  name 
its  principal  products.  See  lesson  79. 

What  have  you  learned  about  the 
Apennines? — About  the  slopes  on  the  Southwest  of  the  Apennines? 
Locate  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  Name  a volcano  in  Sicily. 

Balkan  Countries.  Between  what  four  countries  does  the 
Danube  flow  ? Where  is  Montenegro  ? 

Name  three  seas  that  border  on  Turkey.  What  countries  border 
on  the  Adriatic  sea  ? 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  surface  of  the  countries  in  the 
Balkan  peninsula  ? See  lesson  80.  Why  is  the  coastline  of  Greece 
so  irregular  ? Where  is  Candia  ? 


The  principal  manufac- 
tures  of  Germany  are  cloth, 
iron  articlesjheet  sugar,  glass 
and  porcelain.  Large  quan- 
tities  of  these  articles  are 
sent  to  the  United  States. 
Besides  cotton,  our  country 
sends  grain,  meat,  petroleum 
and  tobacco  to  Germany, — 
largely  through  the  port  of 
Hamburg. 

Germany  ranks  second 
among  commercial  coun- 
tries. 

Berlin,  the  Capital,  is  the 
third  city  in  size  in  Europe. 
This  city  is  a great  trade 
center,  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
famous  university. 

Leipsic  has  a large  univer- 
sity, and  is  noted  for  book-publishing.  Munich  and 
Dresden  have  great  galleries  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

Hamburg,  on  the  tide  water  of  the  Elbe,  is  the  leading 
port  on  the  mainland  of  Europe. 

France.  The  products  and  the  industries  of  France 
resemble  those  of  Germany,  but  the  former  country  ex- 
tends  southward  into  the  belt  where  the  mulberry  tree 
thrives. 


169.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Germany.  What  countries  border  on  Germany?  What  seas 
form  part  of  its  boundary  ? 

Describe  the  surface  of  Germany.  See  lesson  84-  Name  four 
rivers  that  flow  across  this  country.  What  part  of  Germany  is  in 
the  Danube  basin  ? 

What  winds  bring  most  of  the  rainfall  of  Germany  ? Name 
some  of  the  products  of  this  country. 


Switzerland.  Describe  the  surface  of  Switzerland.  See 
lesson  77.  Name  some  of  the  products  of  this  country.  What 
countries  surround  Switzerland  ? 

Austria-Hungary.  What  countries  are  on  the  north  of  Austria- 
Hungary  ? What  sea  is  on  the  Southwest  ? 

Describe  the  river  system  which  drains  the  greater  part  of  this 
empire.  Describe  the  plain  of  Hungary.  See  lesson  81.  What 
mountain  range  forms  part  of  the  boundary  between  Roumania  and 
the  plain  of  Hungary  ? 


LOW  EUROPE,  — WESTERN  PART. 


1G5 


Dantzicd 


^lgouno4 


Hamburg 


Stettin, 


Eagdeburj 


*Élbcrfi'l(l 

>Cologne 


Frankfurt' 

am-Afuin 


CEMBURG  *?'] 


j>ebrecnn 


ludapeat 


Gratz  ypiattm. 


szcgedin 

• — 

Tenae^s 


Agrarn  ^ 


'rieat 


'enice 


KyQtfGenoa 


Y.  Bologna* 
\ L. 

\ Florenci 


•°f - Bonifaci 


CENTRAL  EUROPE 


8CALE  OF  MILES 


Principal  Canal»- 


CagHj  i 


LlPARI  13. 


.lAkmo  s 

' ®£?  Spart  iuento 


■AJffiers 


c.MataPan 


Longitude 


Green  wicE 


Paris,  the  Capital,  is  the  second  largest  city  in  the  world. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Seine  river,  and  is  noted  for  its  art 
galleries  and  fine  buildings.  This  city  is  the  railroad 
center  of  France. 

Havre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  is  the  port  of  Paris. 
Steamers  from  Havre  reach  nearly  all  great  seaports. 
Among  the  French  exports  to  our  country  are  silks, 
woolens  and  millinery  goods.  The  United  States  sends 
about  the  same  kinds  of  goods  to  Havre  as  to  Hamburg. 


Lille  is  in  the  flax-growing  region  of  northern  France, 
and  is  near  coal  mines.  This  city  has  large  mills  for  the 
manufacture  of  linen  cloth  and  thread. 

Belgium.  Belgium  has  valuable  coal  mines,  and  is  in 
the  flax  district.  Laces  and  linen  are  important  manu- 
factures  in  this  country. 

Sugar  beets  are  a leading  crop  in  Belgium.  Here  are 
also  beds  of  excellent  sand  for  glass-making.  The  most 


Among  the  articles  sent  from  Paris  to  New  York  are  leather 
goods,  feathers,  buttons,  fans  and  jewelry. 

Lyons,  the  center  of  the  silk  manufactures,  is  not  far 
from  the  coal  region  of  the  Cevennes,  nor  from  the  silk- 
worm  district  of  Southern  France. 

Marseilles  is  the  largest  port  of  this  country.  A canal 
from  the  Rhone  river  to  this  city  makes  it  the  chief  port 
of  the  Rhone  valley. 

The  Garonne  basin  produces  great  quantities  of  grapes. 
Toulouse  is  in  the  vineyard  district.  This  city  and  Bor- 
deaux are  famous  for  red  wines. 


valuable  exports  from  this  country  to  the  United  States 
are  beet  sugar,  glassware,  cloth  and  firearms. 

Antwerp,  the  chief  port,  is  the  center  of  the  railroad  and 
canal  systems  which  reach  nearly  all  parts  of  Belgium. 

Brussels  is  noted  for  carpets  and  laces.  Liege  is  well 
known  for  its  firearms. 

The  Netherlands  or  Holland.  The  people  of  this 
country  are  largely  engaged  in  dairying  and  in  raising 
cereals.  Holland  has  many  eolonies,  among  which  are 
Java,  Sumatra  and  Dutch  Guiana.  These  eolonies  send 
tobacco,  tea,  coffee,  sugar  and  spices  to  Holland. 


Longitude  .10 


Bast 


Greenwich  25 


[rom 


166 


MEDITERRANEAN  COUNTRIES. 


171.  Other  Countries  of  Europe. 


SWITZERLAND. 


mai  oguagd. 


170.  Mediterranean 
Countries. 

Spain.  Madrid,  the 
Capital  and  largest  city 
of  Spain,  is  in  the 
central  plateau. 

Barcelona  is  the  chief 
city  of  eastern  Spain. 

This  city  exports 
fruits,  olive  oil,  silk 
and  wine.  Valencia 
is  noted  for  its  fine 
silk  manufactures. 

Malaga  is  a wine  and 
fruit  port. 

Portugal.  Lisbon  is 
the  principal  trade 
of  Portugal.  This  city,  as 
well  as  Oporto  farther  north, 
has  a large  trade  in  wine 
and  in  olive  oil. 

Italy.  The  leading  ex- 
ports of  this  country  are 
silks,  wine,  oil  and  fruits. 

The  imports  are  raw  cotton, 
sugar,  coffee  and  other  food 
supplies. 

Naples,  on  the  beautiful 
bay  of  the  same  name,  is  the 
largest  city  in  Italy. 

Rome,  the  Capital,  contains  the  Yatican,  or  residence  of 
the  Pope  ; and  St.  Peter’s,  the  largest  cathedral  in  the 
world.  This  city  is  famous  for  its  historie  ruins. 

Milan  is  the  most  important  city  in  the  Po  valley. 


The  swift  streams  of  this  country 
supply  good  water  power.  Here 
are  also  mines  of  brown  coal, 
or  lignite.  Raw  silk  is  brought 
from  Italy ; cotton  from  our 
country ; flax  from  the  countries 
of  Low  Europe.  Switzerland 
manufactures  laces,  silks  and 
cotton  cloth.  Zurich  is  the 
principal  manufaeturing  city. 

Geneva  is  noted  for  its  watch- 
es,  clocks  and  music  boxes. 


center 


Rome. 


Constantinople,  on  the  Bosporus. 


yields 
sheep 
highlands 


Dairying  and  hotel- 
keeping  are  leading  in- 
dustries in  Switzerland. 
Every  summer  thousands 
of  tourists  visit  this  country 
to  see  its  mountains,  gla- 
ciers,  lakes  and  waterfalls. 

Austria-Hungary.  The 
fertile  plain  of  Hungary 
grain,  sugar  beets  and  grapes.  Cattle  and 
here  find  good  pasturage.  The  surrounding 
are  rich  in  minerals.  The  higher  slopes  are 

forested. 


Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  are  important  ports.  Many 
skillful  diamond-cutters  live  in  these  cities.  Diamonds 
and  tobacco  are  the  principal  exports  from  Holland  to 
our  country. 

Denmark.  This  country  resembles  Holland  in  its 
produets.  Copenhagen  is  the  Capital  and  principal  city. 


Genoa  is  the  chief  port  of  northwest  Italy.  Florence  and 
Venice  have  famous  art  galleries. 

Turkey  and  Greece.  The  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  these  two  countries,  as  well  as  with  the  other  Balkan 
states,  is  very  small.  Constantinople  is  the  Capital  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  ineluding  Turkey  in  Europe,  Turkey  in 
Asia,  Egypt  and  Tripoli.  The  chief  ruler,  or  sultan,  is 
he  head  of  the  Mohammedan  religion. 

Athens,  the  Capital  of  Greece,  is  famous  for  its 
listory,  and  for  the  ruins  of  its  ancient  temples. 


MEDITERRANEAN  COUNTRIES. 


167 


Norway  and  Sweden.  These  countries  are  united 
under  one  king.  The  United  States  has  very  little  trade 
with  either. 

Christiania  is  the  chief  port  of  Norway.  It  has  a large 
trade  in  lumber.  Bergen  is  the  second  port  of  this 
country. 

Stockholm  is  the  principal  city  of  Sweden.  Gothenburg 
is  the  leading  port. 

One  of  the  most  important  aids  to  commerce  in  Europe  is  the 
system  of  canals  and  rivers  forming  a network  over  the  lowlands, 
and  even  uniting  the  large  rivers  in  the  highland  region. 

Canals  from  river  to  river  cross  the  plain  of  Russia,  so  that 
boats  can  carry  freight  to  almost  every  city  and  large  town  in  the 
European  portion  of  the  empire.  This  great  inland  water  system 
reaches  the  Caspian,  the  Black,  the  Baltic  and  the  White  seas,  as 
well  as  the  mining  districts  in  the  Ural  mountain  region.  Most  of 
the  freight  in  Russia  is  carried  by  boats  on  the  canals  and  rivers. 

On  the  west,  the  inland  water  ways  of  Russia  connect  with  the 
Yistula  system.  Boats  from  the  Yistula  can  pass  through  tributa- 
ries  and  canals  that  lead  into  the  Oder,  and  thence  to  the  Elbe  and 
the  Rhine.  All  the  large  rivers  of  Germany  thus  help  to  form  a 
connected  system,  reaching  nearly  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and 
affording  a cheap  means  of  transporting  freight. 


St.  Mark’s,  Venice. 


Vienna  is  the  railroad  center  of  the  empire,  and  is  also 
a river  port.  This  city  has  one  of  the  largest  and  best 
universities  in  the  world. 

Budapest,  on  the  Danube,  is  the  second  city  in  impor- 
tance  in  this  country.  It  is  the  trade  center  of  the  plain 
of  Hungary.  Trieste  is  the  principal  port  of  the  empire. 

Russia.  St.  Petersburg  is  the  capital  of  the  Russian 
Empire.  Railroads  and  canals  connect  this  city  with  the 
productive  parts  of  the  great  plain  of  Russia.  See  lesson  85. 
The  leading  exports  are  wheat,  flax,  lumber  and  wool. 

Moscow  is  the  railroad 
center  of  the  enrpire. 

This  city  has  an  im- 
mense  trade,  not  only 
with  other  parts  of 
European  Russia,  but 
also  with  Siberia. 

The  Kremlin,  an  old  for- 
tress  in  Moscow,  covers 


Zurlch. 


about  one  hundred  acres.  Within  its  walls 
are  several  famous  buildings. 

Odessa  and  Riga  are  important  ports. 
The  former  is  the  largest  city  on  the 
Black  sea  and  is  a famous  wheat  port. 


Greneva. 


Kremlin,  Moscow. 

The  low  countries  of  Belgium  and 
Holland  are  crossed  by  many  canals. 
Erom  the  Rhine  valley,  canals  lead  to 
the  Seine,  thence  to  the  Loire,  and  to 
the  Garonne.  Erom  the  latter  river, 
boats  can  follow  the  canal  route  to 
the  Rhone  river  or  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean  sea. 

On  the  rivers  and  canals  named 
above,  a boat  can  go  from  Marseilles 
to  Paris,  Berlin,  Hamburg,  St.  Peters- 
burg,  Moscow,  or  even  to  the  port 
of  Arcliangel  on  the  White  sea. 
The  Rhine  and  the  Danube  are 
also  connected  by  a canal  in  the 
highland  region,  thus  completing 
the  water  route  from  the  North 
sea  to  the  Black  sea,  by  way  of 
the  plain  of  Hungary. 

In  some  countries  more  freight 
is  carried  on  the  canals  than  on 
the  railroads. 


168 


sides.  Tliis  port  is  near  the  richest  coffee  district  of 
Brazil,  and  is  the  largest  coffee  market  in  the  world; 
but  Santos,  a small  seaport  Southwest  of  Rio  Janeiro,  is  a 
close  rival. 


Other  exports  from  Rio  Janeiro  are  sugar,  Md.es,  tobacco  and 
diamonds. 

The  principal  imports  into  Brazil  are  cotton  cloth  and 
machinery. 

Bahia,  a large  port  northeastward  from  Rio  Janeiro,  re- 
sembles  the  latter  in  its  foreign  trade. 

Pernambuco  is  the  leading  sugar  port  of  Brazil.  This  is 
one  of  the  Brazilian  ports  partly  inclosed  by  long  rocky 
reefs.  See  picture  on  page  58. 

Para  is  on  one  of  the  wide  distributaries  of  the  Amazon. 
This  city  has  a large  rubber  trade. 

Other  exports  from  the  Amazon  basin,  mostly  through  Para,  are 
cocoa,  Brazil  nuts,  hides  and  Peruvian  bark. 

Argentine  Republic.  The  people  of  this  republic 
are  engaged  ckiefly  in  raising  cattle,  sheep,  wheat  and 
Indian  com. 

Buenos  Ayres,  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  the  conti- 
nent,  has  a large  foreign  trade  in  hides,  wool  and  wheat. 
The  leading  imports  are  cloth  and  railway  materials. 

Cordova  and  La  Plata  are  important  trade  centers.  The 
former  has  a university  and  an  academy  of  Sciences. 

Uruguay.  A large  part  of  this  country  is  grazing 
land  for  cattle  and  sheep.  Wool  and  hides  are  the  princi- 
pal exports. 

Montevideo  is  the  Capital  and  the  largest  port. 

Paraguay.  In  this  small  republic  the  most  valuable 
product  is  Paraguay  tea,  or  yerba  maté.  Asuncion,  the 
Capital,  is  the  commercial  center. 


PERUVIAN  POTTERY 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


172.  Re  vie  w and  Map  Studies. 

Describe  the  Andes  of  Chile  ; — of  Bolivia  and  Peru ; — of 
Ecuador  and  Colombia.  See  lessons  57,  58  and  59. 

Describe  the  surface  of  Brazil ; — of  the  Argentine  Republic  ; — 
of  Venezuela.  See  lessons  60  to  64. 

Tell  what  you  can  about  the  climate  and  the  products  of  the 
selvas ; — of  the  llanos  ; — of  the  gran  chaco  and  the  pampas ; — 
of  the  highland  of  Brazil. 

Bound  Chile.  Between  what  two  countries  is  Lake  Titicaca? 
Which  countries  of  South  America  are  crossed  by  the  equator  ? 
What  country  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  Orinoco  basin? 
Between  what  countries  is  the  broad  La  Plata  mouth  ? Which 
countries  of  this  continent  do  not  border  on  Brazil  ? Which  coxm- 
tries  have  no  seacoast  ? 

To  which  countries  does  Tierra  del  Puego  belong  ? To  what  em- 
pire do  the  Falkland  islands  belong  ? What  small  countries  in 
South  America  belong  to  European  nations  ? What  is  the  form  of 
government  of  all  the  countries  of  this  continent,  except  the 
Guianas  ? See  lesson  103. 

173.  Countries  of  South  America. 

Brazil.  Rio  Janeiro,  the  Capital  of  this  republic,  is  on 
a deep  and  spacious  harbor,1  sheltered  by  hills  on  all 

1 This  harbor  was  discovered  in  January,  and  was  at  first  thought  to  be 
the  wide  mouth  of  a river  ; hence  the  name,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  or  Rio  Janeiro. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


1G9 


CARACAS 

Orino£/ 


.£I0WN 


jffJkSXBO 


>gota 


LUATor 


Q V 

ChimborJØ 

W«*W 


forai^V 


Callao' 


Iqniqut 


ASUN 


Cordova] 


Aconcai 


Valpata 18°^ 


‘^-BUENOS 


FERNANOEZ 


/SOUTH 

AMEEICA 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS 
|/VjfJb  Gt. Britain) 


COMPARATIVE  AREA 


■IERRA  DEL 
N,  FU  EGO 


SOUTH  GEOI 


THIS  RECTANGLE  CONTAIN8 
100,000  6QUARE  MILES  / 


Chile.  This  republic  has  great  mineral  wealth.  In 
the  desert  district  of  Atacama  are  found  great  quantities  of 
niter,  — a whitish  salt  used  in  the  manufaeture  of  gun- 
powder.  Copper  and  silver  are  abundant  in  the  northern 
half  of  Chile.  Rich 
mines  of  coal  are  being 
worked  in  the  South- 
ern half  of  this  coun- 
try. 

The  principal  farm- 
ing  products  of  Chile 
are  wlieat  and  wine 
grapes. 

Valparaiso  is  the 

chief  port.  Most 
of  the  imports,  — 
such  as  clotli,  cat- 
tle  and  sugar,  — 
are  received  into  this 
city.  Large  quantities 
of  niter  and  copper 
are  shipped  from  the 
northern  seaport  of 
Iquique. 

Santiago  is  the  Capi- 
tal and  largest  city  of 
Chile.  This  is  one 
of  the  Andean  cities 
whicli  are  built  far 
above  the  unhealthful 
Coastal  region.  San- 
tiago is  in  a wide  val- 
ley  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Andes, 
more  than  one  third 
of  a mile  above  sea 
level. 


alpacas  are  reared  in  the  highlands.  Sugar,  cotton  and 
wool  are  the  leading  exports.  Cloth  is  the  most  valuable 
article  of  import. 

Lima  is  the  largest  city  of  this  country.  Callao  is  one 


Longitude 


Greenwich 


\\  < st 


I:  m 


Longitude 


West 


from 


Greenwich  60 


Bolivia.  This  coun- 
try has  rich  mines  of 
silver.  Its  rubber 
product  is  of  the  finest 
quality. 

What  have  you  read 
about  cinchona?  See 
lesson  58. 

Bolivia  has  no  sea- 
port, but  many  of  its 
products  are  exported 
through  Buenos  Ayres,  Arica  (Chile),  and  other  ports. 

La  Paz  and  Sucre  are  the  principal  cities.  Potosi 
noted  for  its  silver  mines. 


is 


Peru.  Sugar  cane  and  cotton  are  raised  in  the  flood 
plains  of  the  small  rivers  of  western  Peru.  Sheep*and 


of  the  principal  seaports  of  western  South  America. 

Ecuador.  The  staple  product  of  Ecuador  is  cocoa. 
This  country,  like  all  the  others  crossed  by  the  Andes, 
has  rich  mineral  deposits. 

Quito  is  the  Capital.  Guayaquil  is  the  largest  city. 


170 


Colombia.  The  leading  export  of  this  country  is  coffee. 
Bogotå,  the  Capital,  is  over  a mile  and  a half  above  sea 
level.  Panama,  at  the  Pacific  end  of  the  Panama  railroad,  is 
an  important  port.  A large  portion  of  the  freight  which 
passes  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  ports  of  our 
country  goes  through  Panama. 

Venezuela.  Coffee  is  the  most  valuable  export  from 
Venezuela.  Many  hides  are  shipped  from  the  Orinoco  basin. 
Caracas  and  Valencia  are  the  most  important  cities  of  this  country. 

Guiana.  The  three  colonies  of  Guiana  are  not  thickly  settled,  and 
the  value  of  their  trade  is  not  very  great.  Sugar  is  the  leading  export. 
The  capitals  of  the  colonies  are  the  most  important  centers  of  trade. 


ASIA. 


174.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

There  are  five  divisions  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  namely:  China,  Tibet,  Mongolia, 
Eastern  Turkestan  and  Manchuria.  Describe  the  surface,  the  climate  and  the  products 
of  each.  See  lessons  72,  69  and  68. 

In  like  manner  describe  India  (see  lesson  78)%, — Siberia  (see  lesson  72);  — Japan  (see 
lesson  7Jj)\—  Persia,  Turkey  and  Arabia  (see  lesson  70)\  — Java,  Sumatra  and  the  Pliilip- 
pine  islands  (see  lesson  7 Jf). 

What  country  is  on  the  north  of  the  Chinese  Empire  ? Where  are  Anam  and  Siam  ? 
What  countries  border  on  the  Arabian  sea  ? — On  the  Persian  Gulf  ? — On  the  Caspian 
sea  ? What  two  countries  are  between  India  and  Persia  ? 


175.  Countries  of  Asia. 


India.  This  country  trades  chiefly  with  Great  Britain  and  with  China. 
The  most  valuable  exports  from  India  are  cotton  and  cotton  seed,  wheat,  rice,  opium,  jute,  tea  and  indigo.  The 
principal  imports  are  cotton  cloth  and  hardware. 

Bombay  and  Calcutta  are  the  greatest  seaports  of  India.  Each  is  about  as  large  as  the  city  of  Brooklyn. 

Calcutta,  the  Capital  of  India,  is  on  the  Hugli  river,  in  the  Ganges  delta.  This  city  is  the  principal  shipping-point 
for  the  produce  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra  basins.'  Railroads,  rivers  and  canals  form  the  inland  highways 


COUNTRIES  OF  ASIA. 


171 


of  trade  to  and  from  tliis  great  port.  No  large  rivers 
carry  products  to  Bombay,  but  the  city  is  reached  by 
railroads  from  nearly  all  parts  of  India.  This  port  owes 
its  rapid  growth  largely  to  its  situation  on  the  west  coast, 
much  nearer  than  Calcutta  to  the  Suez  canal  and  the 
British  Isles. 

Madras  is  the  largest  seaport  of  Southern  India. 

Benares  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  Hindu  religion,  and  is 


one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world.  In  this  holy  city 
of  the  Hindus,  the  north  bank  of  the  Ganges  is  lined  with 
great  temples. 

Rangun  is  the  chief  port  of  Burmese  India.  This  city 
has  a large  trade  in  rice. 

Delhi  and  Mandalay  are  large  centers  of  trade  in  India. 
See  picture  of  old  Delhi,  page  68. 

Locate  Colombo  and  Singapore.  What  have  you  learned  about 
the  latter  city  ? See  lesson  H4-  Ceylon  and  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments,  as  well  as  India,  are  British  possessions! 

1 France  and  Portugal  control  a few  small  colonies  in  the  Southern  and 
western  parts  of  the  Deccan. 


French  Indo-China.  French  Indo- China  includes 
Anam,  Cochin-China,  Cambodia  and  other  provinces. 
All  these  are  under  the  control  of  France. 

The  products  of  French  Indo-China  are  similar  to  those 
of  British  India.  Hanoi,  Hué,  Saigon  and  Pnompenh  are 
the  chief  centers  of  trade. 

Siam.  This  country  is  ruled  by  a native  king,  — an 
absolute  monarch.  The  resources  of  the  country  are 


poorly  developed.  Teak  and  rice  are  the  principal  prod- 
ucts. Bangkok  is  the  chief  city. 

East  Indies.  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes,  and  middle  and 
Southern  Borneo  are  possessions  of  Holland.  They  are 
called  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Northwest  Borneo  is  under 
the  control  of  the  British  nation.  Spain  Controls  the 
Philippine  islands. 

What  have  you  learned  about  the  islands  named  above  ? Locate 
Manilla,  Bata  via  and  Macassar.  See  tnap  on  page  175. 

China.  The  British  nation  Controls  the  greater  part  of 
China’ s foreign  trade,  though  the  United  States  has  a 


172 


COUNTRIES  OF  ASIA. 


Cairo,  Egypt. 

Japan  is  the  most  progressive  of  Asiatic  countries.  The  Japa- 
nese  have  good  schools,  railway  and  telegraph  lines,  and  large  manu- 
factories.  Among  the  latter  are  iron  foundries,  glass-works,  paper 
mills,  cotton  and  silk  mills.  The  people  of  Japan  are  noted  for 
the  weaving  of  silk  and  the  carving  of  ivory. 

Tokyo  is  the  Capital  and  the  commercial  center  of 
Japan.  Only  two  cities  in  America  are  larger  than 
Tokyo. 

Yokohama,  on  the  bay  of  Tokyo,  is  the  chief  seaport. 
Osaka  is  an  important  manufacturing  city.  Kioto  is  sur- 
rounded  by  a great  number  of  Buddhist  temples. 

Korea.  The  Japanese  have  recently  won  for  Korea 
its  freedom  from  Chinese  authority.  The  foreign  trade 
of  this  country  is  small,  and  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Japanese.  Seoul  is  the  chief  city  of  Korea. 


Alexandria. 

minus  of  the  Siberian  railroad  now  being 
built.  See  map  of  Asia  in  tlie  Supplement. 

Persia.  Cereals  and  the  opium-poppy  grow 
in  the  fertile  portions  of  Persia,  chiefly  in  the 
districts  near  the  Caspian  sea.  Many  sheep 
are  reared  in  the  highland  regions.  Dates 
thrive  along  the  coast,  and  pearls  are  obtained 
from  the  border  waters  on  the  south.  The 
Persians  are  famous  for  their  handmade  carpets  and  rugs. 

Teherån  and  Tabriz  are  the  principal  cities. 

Afghanistan.  This  country  is  crossed  by  the  caravan 
routes  that  lead  into  India.  Kabul  is  the  chief  city. 

Baluchistan.  The  people  of  this  rugged  country  are 
mostly  shepherds.  Khelåt  is  the  largest  city. 

Asiatic  Turkey.  The  products  of  this  country  are 
similar  to  those  of  Persia,  hut  the  Red  sea  coast  is  famous 
for  its  coffee.  Mocha  is  the  chief  port  for  the  shipment 
of  this  coffee.  Mohammed  was  born  in  Mecca. 

Smyrna  is  the  largest  city  and  port  of  Asiatic  Turkey. 
Damascus  has  an  extensive  caravan  trade  with  the  Arabs. 

Jerusalem  is  famous  for  its  religious  history. 

Arabia.  Arabia,  like  Persia  and  Turkey,  is  a Moham- 
medan  country.  See  lesson  71. 

Oman.  Maskat  exports  dates,  and  imports  rice. 


small  share  in  it.  The  island  of  Hongkong,  on  the  coast 
of  China,  is  a British  colony.  It  exports  Chinese  tea  and 
silk;  and  imports  opium,  cotton  cloth,  sugar  and  flour  for 
the  great  empire  near  by. 

The  United  States  imports  tea  and  silk  from  China, — 
chiefly  from  the  ports  of  Shanghai,  Canton  and  Fuchau. 

Peking,  the  Capital,  and  Canton  are  the  largest  cities  of 
the  Chinese  Empire.  Yarkand  is  in  the  principal  oasis  of 
the  province  of  Eastern  Turkestan.  Lassa  is  the  chief 
city  of  Tibet. 


Japan.  Japan  is  the  only  limited  monarchy  in  Asia, 
having  its  own  ruler.  All  the  other  independent  countries 
are  absolute  monarchies. 

The  exports  of  Japan  are  tak  en  from  its  rice 
swamps,  its  silkworm  nurseries  and  its  tea  farms. 

The  imports  are  mostly  cloth,  metal  goods  and 
petroleum.  Japanese  trade  is 
carried  on  chiefly  with  the  United 
States  and  with  Great  Britain. 


Russia  in  Asia.  Siberia  and  Trans-Caucasia1  are 
parts  of  the  great  Russian  Empire,  which  comprises 
about  one  seventh  of  the  land-surface  of  the  earth. 
Bokhara  and  Khiva  also  are  under  the  control  of  Russia. 

Tashkent,  the  largest  city  in  Asiatic  Russia,  is  in  a 
district  made  fertile  by  irrigation.  Tiflis  is  a city 
through  which  Russia  conducts  a large  part  of  its  trade 
with  Persia  and  other  countries  of  Southwest  Asia.  The 
railroad  which  carries  great  quantities  of  petroleum  from 
Baku  to  the  port  of  Batum  passes  through  Tiflis. 

Irkutsk  and  Vladivostok  are  centers  of  Siberian  trade. 
The  latter  city  is  the  Pacific  port  of  Siberia,  and  the  ter- 


By  the  terms  of  the  China- Japanese  treaty  of  1895,  Korea  was 
made  an  independent  kingdom,  — an  absolute  monarchy. 


1 Trans-Caucasia  is  the  name  of  the  Asiatic  portion  of  the  large  Russian 
province  of  Caucasus,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Caucasus  mountains. 


A F R I C A. 


173 


176.  Review  and  Map  Studies. 

Describe  the  Nile  basin.  See  lesson  88.  What  part  of  this 
basin  is  in  Egypt? — In  Nubia?  What  European  nation  claims 
the  region  about  the  high- 
land  of  Abyssinia  ? 

Where  is  Tripoli? 

Where  is  Morocco  ? De- 
scribe the  Sahara.  See 
lesson  89.  In  what  respect 
does  the  Sudan  differ  from 
the  Sahara  ? See  lesson 
90. 

Loeate  Liberia  and 
Sierra  Leone.  What  na- 
tion claims  the  region 
stretching  northeastward 
from  Liberia  to  the  Medi- 
terranean  sea  ? 

What  state  or  country 
comprises  the  greater  part 
of  the  Kongo  basin  ? Be- 
tween  what  two  European 
claims  is  Lake  Victoria? 

What  lake  partly  sepa- 
rates  Kongo  State  from 
German  East  Africa? 

Where  is  the  territory 
known  as  the  Erench 
Kongo  ? 

What  European  nation 
claims  a broad  Coastal  belt 
on  both  sides  of  the  lower 
Zambezi  ? What  name  is 
given  to  the  middle  re- 
gion of  the  Zambezi  basin? 

What  European  nation 
Controls  Zambezia  and 
Cape  Colony?  See  les- 
son 92. 

Describe  the  surface 
and  the  products  of  Cape 
Colony.  Loeate  the 
Orange  Free  State.  What 
country  is  on  the  north 
of  the  Free  State? 

What  have  you  learned 
about  Madagascar  ? See 
lesson  92.  Loeate  the 
Madeira,  the  Canary  and 
the  Mauritius  islands. 

For  what  is  St.  Helena 
noted?  See  lesson  84- 

Loeate  Zanzibar,  Ta- 
nanarivo,  Mozambique. 


177.  Countries  of  Africa. 

Egypt.  This  country  is  nominally  part  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire,  though  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  has  very 
little  control  over  the  affairs  of  Egypt.  The  KhecLive,  or 


ruler,  of  Egypt  resides  in  Cairo,  the  Capital.  This  is 
one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world. 


the  location  of  this  city  with  that  of  New  Orleans.  Which  is 
farther  from  the  equator? 

The  principal  exports  of  Egypt  are  cotton  and  cotton 
seed.  The  most  valuable  imports  here,  as  in  all  other 


What  have  you  learned  about  Cairo?  See  page  90.  Compare 


174 


COUNTRIES  OF  AFR1CA. 


extends 


now 


across 


African  countries, 
are  various  kinds  of 
cloth.  Great  Britain 
Controls  the  greater 
part  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
Egypt. 

Alexandria,  in  the  Nile 
delta,  is  the  largest  seaport  of  this  country. 


NATIVE 

THROWING 

BOOMERANG 


Before  the  discovery  of  the  route  from  Europe  to  India  by  way 
of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  Alexandria  was  one  of  the  greatest  ports 
in  the  world.  When  the  East  India  trade  with  western  Europe  was 
turned  away  from  the  Mediterranean  sea,  the  port  in  the  Nile  delta 
rapidly  declined.  The  building  of  the  Suez  canal  has  greatly 
increased  the  trade  of  Alexandria. 


French  territory  which 
Sahara  and  the  Sudan. 

The  Coastal  districts  of  Tunis  and  Algeria  have 
many  fertile  valleys  that  produce  wheat.  Olives 
grow  here  in  abundance,  and  cattle  and  sheep  find 
good  grazing  land.  The  cities  of  Tunis  and  Algiers 
export  wheat,  olive  oil,  wool  and  hides  to  France. 

Morocco.  The  products  of  this  country  are  similar 
to  those  of  Algeria.  Fez  and  Morocco  are  the  princi- 
pal  cities  of  Morocco. 

Sierra  Leone.  This  small  colony  belongs  to  the 
British  nation.  Freetown  exports  palm  oil. 

Liberia.  This  is  a negro  republic  settled  largely  by 
freed  slaves  from  the  United  States.  Monrovia,  the  Cap- 
ital, is  named  after  a former  President  of  our  country. 
The  chief  exports  from  Monrovia  are  coffee  and  palm  oil. 

Kongo  State.  The  King  of  Belgium  is  the  ruler  of 
the  Kongo  State.  Boma  is  the  local  Capital. 

The  most  valuable  exports  of  the  Kongo  State  are 
coffee,  rubber,  ivory  and  palm  oil. 

Cape  Colony.  Cape  Colony  is  a large  and  valuable 
British  possession.  See  lesson  92. 


i - 


Tripoli.  This  portion  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  is 
thinly  settled.  The  population  of  the  entire  country  of 
Tripoli  is  smaller  than  that  of  Brooklyn.  The  Capital  is 
the  only  important  city. 

Tunis  and  Algeria.  These  countries  have  been  added 
to  the  possessions  of  France.  They  form  part  of  the 


European  nations  have  seized  nearly  all  parts  of  Africa.  Italy 
is  trying  to  control  the  territory  in  the  region  of  the  highland  of 
Abyssinia ; France  not  only  claims  large  areas  on  the  mainland,  but 
is  also  seeking  to  control  Madagascar  ; Great  Britain,  Germany  and 
Portugal  possess  the  greater  portion  of  middle  and  Southern  Africa. 
Spain  has  a footing  in  the  Sahara,  and  also  directs  the  affairs  of 
the  Canary  islands. 


AUSTRALIA. 


175 


178.  Re  vie  w and  Map  Studies. 

Describe  the  surface  of  Australia.  Tell  what  you  can  about  its 
climate.  See  maps  on  pages  21  and  21f  ; also  lesson  98. 

•In  what  part  of  Australia  is  the  colony  of  Victoria  ? Where  is 
Queensland?  What  colony  is  between  Victoria  and  Queensland? 

Which  colony  occupies  a broad  belt  stretching  north  and  south 
across  this  continent?  What  name  is  given  to  the  most  westerly 
colony  in  Australia?  Locate  Tasmania. 


Tell  what  you  have  learned  about  New  Zealand; — Papua;  — 
the  Fiji  islands;  — the  Friendly  islands  ; — the  Samoa  islands  ; 
— Micronesia;  — the  Hawaiian  islands.  See  lesson  95. 

179.  Colonies  of  Australia. 

The  colonies  in  the  southeastem  part  of  this  conti- 
nent are  the  most  thriving.  Here  are  vast  grazing  dis- 
tricts  that  support  millions  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Large 
areas  are  planted  with  wheat,  Indian  corn  and  other 
cereals.  Great  quantities  of  gold  and  tin  are  mined. 
Middle  and  western  Australia  are  thinly  settled. 


The  principal  exports  from  Australia  are  wool,  gold 
and  cereals.  The  most  valuable  imports  are  cloth  and 
iron  manufactures.  The  largest  seaports  are  in  south- 
east  Australia,  in  the  productive  colonies. 

Melbourne,  the  chief  seaport  of  Victoria,  is  the  largest 
city  of  Australia.  Its  population  is  greater  than  that  of 
Boston.  Melbourne  has  extensive  manufactures. 


Sydney,  the  principal  port  of  New  South  Wales,  is  on  a 
long  and  deep  landlocked  bay.  This  is  the  oldest  and 
the  second  largest  city  in  Australia. 

Adelaide  is  the  commercial  center  of  South  Australia. 
Brisbane,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  is  the  Capital 
and  leading  port  of  Queensland.  Hobart  is  an  important 
port  of  Tasmania. 

New  Zealand.  The  most  valuable  exports  from  New 
Zealand  are  wool,  gold  and  frozen  meat.  Dunedin  is  the 
chief  port  of  the  South  island ; Auckland,  of  the  North 
island.  Wellington  is  the  Capital. 


» » 


, , ' V _ 

V 

* 

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■ 


■ 


* 


. 


SUPPLEMENT 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF 


PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES  AND  COLONIES. 


Year. 

NORTH 

AMERICA. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

1893 

Balize .... 

7,500 

31,300 

1891 

Canada 

. 3,450,000 

4,833,000 

1892 

Costa  Rica  . 

23,000 

243,000 

1894 

Cuba  .... 

43,000 

1,632,000 

1893 

Guatemala 

47,000 

1.460.000 

1.580.000 

1894 

Haiti  .... 

28,000 

1889 

Honduras  . 

43,000 

767,000 

396,000 

1893 

Mexico 

12,000,000 

1891 

Newfoundland  . 

42,000 

49,500 

202,000 

1892 

Nicaragua  . 

315,000 

1892 

Salvador  . 

7,200 

780,000 

1890 

United  States  . 

. 3,556,290 

63,006,000 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 


1892 

Argentine  Republic  . 

1,125,000 

4,260,000 

16,000,000 

1895 

Brazil 

3,210,000 

1891 

British  Guiana  .... 

110,000 

567,000 

285,000 

1894 

Bolivia 

2,300,000 

1893 

Chile 

294,000 

3,365,000 

1892 

Colombia 

514,000 

4,800,000 

1892 

Dutch  Guiana  .... 

46,000 

72,000 

1890 

Ecuador  

120,000 

47,000 

1,275,000 

1891 

French  Guiana  .... 

25,000 

1893 

Paraguay 

98,000 

480,000 

1894 

Peru 

464,000 

3,000,000 

1894 

Uruguay  

72,000 

591,000 

787,000 

2,324,000 

1891 

Venezuela 

EUROPE. 

1890 

Austria-Hungary 

241,000 

41,330,000 

1893 

Belgium 

11,400 

6,260,000 

3,310,000 

1893 

Bulgaria 

38,000 

Year. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

Year. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

1890 

Denmark  . 

15,300 

2,185,000 

1895 

Persia . 

628,000 

9,000,000 

1891 

England 

50,800 

27,484,000 

1895 

Philippiues 

114,000 

7,000,000 

1891 

France 

264,000 

38,343,000 

1893 

Russia  in  Asia  . 

6, 560, 000 

18,125,000 

1890 

Germany  . 

208,700 

49, 428, (XX) 

1895 

Siam  . 

300,000 

5 ,000, (XX) 

1889 

Greece 

25,000 

2, 187, (XX) 

1895 

Sumatra  . 

161,000 

3,000,000 

1891 

Ireland 

32,600 

4,706,000 

1894 

Italy  . 

110,000 

30,725,000 

1894 

Montenegro 

3,600 

200,000 

1893 

Netlierlands 

12,600 

4,733,000 

AFRICA. 

1891 

Norway 

125,000 

2,000,000 

1894 

Portugal  . 

34,000 

5,300,000 

1895 

Abyssinia  . 

194,000 

4,500,000 

1893 

Roumania  . 

48,300 

5,800,000 

1891 

Algeria 

185, 000 

4, 125, (XX) 

1893 

Russia 

2,100,000 

98,840,000 

1895 

Cape  Colony 

221,000 

1 ,825,000 

1891 

30,400 

4, 026,  (XX) 

1895 

Egypt 

400,000 

6,820,000 

1894 

Servia . 

19,000 

2'256j000 

1895 

Kongo  State 

900,000 

15, 000, (MK) 

1895 

198,000 

18,000^000 

1894 

Liberia 

14,400 

1,068,000 

1893 

Sweden 

173,000 

4,825,000 

1895 

Madagascar 

228,500 

3,500,000 

1894 

16,000 

2,990'000 

1895 

Morocco 

220,000 

5,000,000 

1895 

European  Turkey 

ffljOOO 

4, 780^000 

1895 

Orange  Free  State 

48,000 

208, 000 

1891 

Wales  . 

7,400 

1,519,000 

1895 

Sahara 

2,000,000 

2,500,000 

1895 

South  Afncan  Republic 

119,000 

500,000 

1895 

Sudan . 

2,000,000 

50,000,000 

1895 

Tripoli 

340,000 

800, (XX) 

ASIA. 

1895 

Tunis  . 

45,000 

1,500,000 

1895 

Afghanistan 

212,000 

4,000,000 

1895 

Arabia 

1,000,000 

2,200,000 

1895 

Asiatic  Turkey  . 

687,000 

21,600,000 

3CEANIA. 

1895 

Baluchistan 

130,000 

500,000 

1895 

Bomeo 

290,000 

1,750,000 

1890 

Hawaiian  Islands 

6,500 

90,000 

1892 

Celebes 

71,000 

2,000,000 

1895 

New  Guiana 

311,000 

800,000 

1895 

Cliinese  Empire 

4,218,000 

400,000,000 

1891 

New  South  Wales 

310,700 

1,132,000 

1891 

India  (British)  . 

1,560,000 

300,000,000 

1891 

New  Zealand  . 

164,500 

627,000 

1895 

Indo-China  (French) 

138,000 

17,000,000 

1891 

Queensland 

668,500 

364,000 

1892 

Java  . 

51,000 

24,000,000 

1891 

South  Australia 

904,000 

320,000 

1892 

Japan  . 

148,000 

40,089,000 

1891 

Tasmania  . 

26,000 

147,000 

1895 

Korea  . 

82,000 

10,000,000 

1891 

Victoria 

88,000 

1,146,000 

1895 

Nepal  . 

54,000 

2,000,000 

1891 

West  Australia . 

1,060,000 

53,000 

POPULATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


British  America. 


Year. 

Population. 

1891 

Montreal  . . . 

217,000 

1891 

Toronto  .... 

181,000 

1891 

Quebec  .... 

63,000 

1891 

Hamilton  . . . 

49,000 

1891 

Ottawa  .... 

44,000 

1891 

St.  John  .... 

39,000 

1891 

Halifax  .... 

39,000 

1891 

London  .... 

32,000 

1891 

St.  John’8  . . . 

29,000 

1891 

Winnipeg  . . . 

26,000 

1891 

Victoria  .... 

17,000 

Central  America. 

1893 

Guatemala  . . . 

71,000 

1895 

Léon 

25,000 

1893 

San  Salvador  . . 

20,000 

1892 

San  José .... 

19,000 

1895 

Managua  . . . 

18,000 

Mexico. 

1893 

Mexico  .... 

330,000 

95,000 

1893 

Guadalajara  . . 

United  States. 

See  page  181. 

West  Indies. 

1892 

Havana  .... 

225,000 

1892 

Santiago .... 

71,000 

1894 

Port  au  Prince  . 

50.000 

47.000 

1893 

Kingston  . . . 

1892 

Mantanzas  . . . 

27,000 

1892 

Cienfuegos  . . . 

27,000 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Argentine  Republic. 


1894  Buenos  Ayres . . 580,000 
1894  Cdrdova  ....  67,000 

1894  La  Plata.  . . . 65,000 

Bolivia. 

1895  LaPaz  ....  56,000 

1894  Sucre 24,000 

Brazil. 

1892  Rio  Janeiro  . . 800,000 
1890  Penambuco  . . 190,000 

1890  Bahia 80,000 

1890  Parå 65,000 

Chile. 

1890  Santiago  ....  250,000 
1890  Valparaiso  . . . 150,000 


Colombia. 


Year. 

1886  Bogotd  . . 
1886  Panama  . . 

Population. 
. . 120,000 
. . 25,000 

Ecuador. 

1894  Quito  . . . , 
1894  Guayaquil  . 

. . 45,000 

Guiana. 

1891  Georgetown 

1892  Paramaribo 
1895  Cayenne  . . , 

. . 53,000 

. . 29,000 

. . 11,000 

Paraguay. 

1894  Asuncion  . , 

. . 26,000 

Peru ■ 

1894  Lima  . . . , 

1895  Callao . . . , 

1895  Arequipa  . . 

1895  Cuzco  . . . 

. . 162,000 

. . 38,000 

, . 32,000 

. . 19,000 

Uruguay. 

1893  Montevideo 

, . 226,000 

Venezuela. 

1891  Caråcas  . . 
1891  Valencia . . . 
1891  Maracaibo  . . 

. . 73,000 

. . 39,000 

. . 34,000 

EUROPE. 

Austria- Hungary. 


1890  Vienna  . . . 

1890  Budapest  . . 

1890  Prague  . . . 

1890  Trieste  . . . 

1,364,000 
. 506,000 
. 184,000 
. 158,000 

Belgium. 

1893  Brussela  . . . 
1893  Antwerp . . . 
1893  Liégo  .... 
1893  Ghent.  . . . 

. 498,000 
. 247,000 
. 159,000 

Balkan  States. 

1895  Constantinople 
1890  Bucharest  . . 
1895  Salonica  . . . 
1889  Athens  . . . 
1893  Sofia  .... 

. 900,000 
. 195,000 
. 150,000 
. 107,000 
47,000 

Denmark. 

1890  Copenhagen  . 

. 375,000 

England  and  Wales. 

1894  London  . . . 4,349,000 

1894  Manchester  . . 520,000 


Year. 

Population. 

1894  Liverpool  . 

. 507,000 

1894  Birmingham 

. 492,000 

1864  Leeds  . . 

. 389,000 

1864  Sheffield  . 

. 338,000 

. 227,000 

1894  Bristol  . . 

1894  Bradford  . 

. 224,000 

1894  Cardiff  . . 

. 149,000 

France. 

1891  Paris  . . . 

. 2,448,000 

1891  Lvons  . . 

. 416,000 

1891  Marseilles  . 

. 464,000 

1891  Bordeaux  . 

. 252,000 

1891  Lille  . . . 

. 201,000 

1891  Toulouse  . 

. 150,000 

1891  Havre  . . 

. 116,000 

Germany. 

1890  Berlin  . . 

. 1,579,000 

1890  Munich  . . 

. 349,000 

1890  Breslau  . . 

. 335,000 

1890  Hamburg  . 

. 323,000 

1890  Leipsic  . . 

. 295,000 

. 282,000 

1890  Cologne  . . 

1890  Dresden 

. 277,000 

Ireland. 

1891'  Belfast  . . 

. 256,000 

1891  Dublin  . . 

. 245,000 

1891  Cork  . . . 

75,000 

1891  Limerick  . 

. 37,000 

Italy. 

1893  Naples  . . 

. 523,000 

1893  Rome  . . 

. 451,000 

1893  Milan  . . 

. 432,000 

1893  Turin  . . 

. 335,000 

1893  Palermo  . 

. 276, (XX) 

1893  Genoa  . . 

. 215,000 

1893  Florene©  . 

. 200, (XX) 

1893  Venice  . . 

. 150,000 

Netlierlands. 

1893  Amsterdam 

. 447,000 

1893  Rotterdam . 

. 229,000 

1893  The  Haguo 

. 175,000 

Norway  and  Sweden. 

1893  Stockholm . 

. 257,000 

1891  Christiania 

. 151,000 

1893  Gothenburg 

. 109,000 

1891  Bergen  . . 

. 54,000 

Portugal. 

1895  Lisbon  . . 

. 275,000 

1895  Oporto  . . 

. 112,000 

Russia. 

1891  St.  Petersburg 

. 1,035,000 

1891  Moscow . . 

. 822,000 

177 

Year. 

Population. 

1891  Warsaw . . , 

. . 523,000 

1891  Odessa  . . 

. . 333,000 

1891  Riga  . . . 

Scotland. 

1894  Glasgow 

. . 687,000 

1894  Edinburgh . 

. . 271, (XX) 

1864  Dundee  . . 

. . 159,000 

Spain. 

1895  Madrid  . . . 

. . 484,000 

1895  Barcelona  . 

. . 280,000 

1895  Valencia  . , 

, . 175, <XX) 

1895  Målaga  . . . 

, . 138,000 

Switzerland. 

1893  Zurich  . . . 

. . 103,000 

1893  Geneva  . . 

. . 79,000 

1893  Basel  . . . . 

. . 75, (XX) 

1893  Bern  . . . 

. . 48,000 

ASIA. 

Asiatic  Russia. 


1892 

Tashkent  . . . 

156,000 

1892 

Tillis 

147, (MX) 

1893 

Baku 

112,000 

1892 

Irkutsk  .... 

51,000 

China. 

1893  Canton  .... 

1,800,000 

1893 

Peking  .... 

1,000,000 

1893 

Tien-tsin  . . . 

950,000 

1893 

Hankow  . . . 

800, 000 

1893 

Fuchau  .... 

640,000 

1893 

Shanghai  . . . 

400,000 

British  India. 

1891  Calcutta  . . . 

862,000 

1891 

Bombay .... 

822,000 

1891 

Madras  .... 

453,000 

1891 

Hyderabad  . . 

415,000 

1891 

Lucknow  . . . 

273,000 

1891 

Benares .... 

219,000 

1891 

Delhi 

193,000 

1891 

Mandalay  . . . 

189,000 

1891 

Rangun  .... 

180,000 

1891 

Singapore  . . . 

145,000 

French  Indo-China. 
1895  Hanoi  .... 

150,000 

1895 

Hué 

150,000 

1895 

SaYgon  .... 

85,000 

East 

1894 

India  Islands. 
Manilla  .... 

290,000 

1894 

Soerabaya  . . . 

140,000 

1894 

Batavia  .... 

110,000 

Japan. 

Year.  Population. 


1892  Tokyo  ....  1,180,000 
1892  Osaka  ....  480,000 

1892  Kioto 308,000 

1892  Yokoliama . . . 144,000 


Korea. 

1895  Seoul 250,000 

Siam. 

1895  Bangkok  . . . 200,000 


Southwest  Asia 


1895  Teherån  . . . 210,000 

1895  Smyrna  ....  200,000 

1895  Damascus  . . . 200,000 

1895  Tabriz  ....  180,000 

1895  Bagdad  ....  180,000 

1895  Aleppo  ....  130,000 

1895  Ispahån  ....  80,000 

1895  Kabal  ....  60,000 

1895  Kandaliår  . . . 50,000 

1895  Mecca  ....  45,000 

1895  Jerusalem  . . . 41,000 

1895  Heråt  ....  30,000 


AFRICA. 


1895  Cairo 418,000 

1895  Alexandria  . . 230,000 

1895  Fez 140,000 

1895  Morocco  . . . 140,000 

1895  Tunis  ....  125,000 

1895  Tananarivo  . . 100,000 

1891  Algiers  ....  83,000  y 

1891  Cape  Town  . . 83,000 

1891  Oran 74,000 

1895  Zanzibar  . . . 30,000 

1895  Freetown  . . . 30,000 

1895  Tangiers  . . . 30,000 

1895  Tripoli  ....  30,000 

1891  Kimberely . . . 29,000 

1895  PortSaid  . . . 18,000 

1891  Monrovia  . . . 5,000 


OCEANIA 


1893  Melbourne  . . 443,000 

1893  Sydney  ....  420,000 

1893  Adelaide  . . . 141,000 

1891  Auckland  . . . 51,000 

1891  Brisbane  . . . 49,000 

1891  Dunedin  . . . 46,000 

1891  Wellington  . . 33,000 

1891  Hobart  ....  25,000 

1890  Honolulu  . . . 23,000 


178 


GUIDE  MAPS  FOR  DRAWING  AND  MODELING. 


Rivers,  — Lengths  and  Drainage  Areas.1 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


Name. 

System. 

Length 
in  Miles. 

Basin  Area 
Sq.  Miles. 

Colorado  . 

Pacific  . 

1,100 

250,000 

Columbia 

Pacific  . 

1,400 

250,000 

Mackenzie 

Arctic  . 

2,400 

440,000 

Missouri-Mississippi 

Atlantic 

4,200 

1,250,000 

Nelson 

Atlantic 

1,800 

355.000 

180.000 

Rio  Grande 

Atlantic 

1,800 

St.  Lawrence  . 

Atlantic 

2,000 

350,000 

Yukon 

Atlantic 

2,000 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Amazon  . 

Atlantic 

4,000 

2,500,000 

La  Plata  . 

Atlantic 

2,:  100 

1,250,000 

Orinoco  . 

Atlantic 

1,500 

300,000 

San  Francisco 

• 

Atlantic 

1,680 

190,000 

EUROPE. 

Danube  . 

Atlantic 

. - . 2,000 

300.000 

175.000 

Dnieper  . 
Dwina 

Atlantic 

1,230 

Arctic  . 

700 

140,000 

Elbe 

Atlantic 

550 

42,000 

Rliine 

Atlantic 

960 

05,000 

Rhone 

Atlantic 

550 

33,000 

Atlantic 

497 

23,000 

Thames  . 

Atlantic 

215 

6,000 

Volga 

Interior 

2,300 

500,000 

ASIA. 

Pacific  . 

1,500 

600,000 

Brahmaputra  . 

Indian  . 

2,000 

425,000 

Indian  . 

1,800 

450,000 

Hoang-Ho 

Pacific  . 

2,700 

540,000 

Indian  . 

2,000 

320,000 

Arctic  . 

2,550 

600, OoO 

Obi  . 

Arctic  . 

2,500 

920,000 

Yang-tse  . 

Pacific  . 

3,300 

500,000 

AFRICA. 

Kongo 

Niger 

Nile 

Atlantic 

3,300 

1,500,000 

Atlantic 

3,500 

600,000 

Atlantic 

4,000 

1,400,000 

Zambezi  . 

. 

. 

Indian  . 

1,800 

440,000 

Guide  Maps  for  Drawing  and  Modeling  the  Oontinents. 

The  relief  maps  on  tliis  page  and  on  the  two  following  pages  are 
intended  as  guides  for  drawing  and  modeling  the  continents.  These 
maps  are  purposely  made  very  simple,  yet  they  show  the  natural  features 
which  exert  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  distribution  of  climates, 
plants  and  animals. 

Pupils  should  learn  to  sketch  these  maps  from  memory,  without  the 
aid  of  straight  guide-lines,  except  sueh  as  they  themselves  invent. 

The  Teachers’  Manual  offers  suggestions  upon  methods  of  drawing 
and  modeling  the  continents. 


Areas  of  Oontinents  and  Oceans. 


Square  Miles. 

Square  Miles. 

North  America 

. 8,000,000 

Pacific  . . . 

. . 70,000,000 

South  America 

. 6,850,000 

Atlantic  . . . 

. . 35,000,000 

Europe  .... 

. 3,800,000 

Indian  . . . 

. . 23,000,000 

Asia 

. 17,000,000 

Antarctic  . . 

. . 7,000,000 

Africa  .... 

. 11,500,000 

Arctic  . . . 

. . 4,000,000 

Australia  . . . 

. 3,000,000 

Inland  Waters 

. . 750,000 

Total  Population  of  the 

World,  1,500,000,000. 

Caucasian  . . 

. . 690,000,000 

Christians  .... 

400,000,000 

Mongolian . . 

. . 600,000,000 

Buddhists  .... 

500,000,000 

Negro  . . . 

. . 150,000,000 

Mohammedans  . . 

200,000,000 

Malay  . . . 

. . 35,000,000 

Bramanists  . . . 

150,000,000 

American  . . 

. . 12,000,000 

Jews  ..... 

8,000,000 

Mixed  Races  , 

. . 13,000,000 

Pagans  and  others  . 

242,000,000 

1 The  lengths  of  rivers,  and  the  areas  of  their  basins,  are  in  all  cases 
estimates.  Those  of  Africa  are  least  known.  The  basin  of  the  Murray 
river,  in  Australia,  is  thought  to  contain  about  500,000  square  miles. 
The  area  of  the  Yukon  basin  cannot  now  be  estimated. 


REFERENCE  TABLES, 


179 


Indian  Reservations  in  the  United  States. 


States  and  Territoriee. 


Arizona  . ... 

California 
Colorado  . 

Florida 

Idaho 

Indian  Territory  . 
Iowa  .... 
Kansas 
Michigan  . 

Minnesota 
Montana  . 

Nebraska  . 

Nevada  . 

New  Mexico  . 

New  York 
North  Carolina 
North  Dakota  . 
Oklahoma 
Oregon 

South  Dakota  . 

Texas 

Utah  .... 
Washington 
Wisconsin 
Wyoming  . 
Miscellaneous  . 

Total,  1893 
Total,  1880 


Area  of  Indian  Reservations. 

A 

Population  on 
Reservations 
(Indians). 

f 

Acres. 

Square  Miles. 

6,400,037 

10,000 

35,277 

438,868 

686 

12,514 

1,094,400 

1,710 

1,002 

450 

2,088,091 

3,263 

4,185 

19,879,573 

31,062 

71,856 

2,900 

4 

389 

73,796 

115 

1,102 

19,799 

31 

7,428 

2,254,781 

9,382,400 

3,523 

6,194 

14,660 

179 

10,722 

114,550 

3,863 

954,135 

9,495,645 

1,491 

14,837 

8,500 

9,882 

87,677 

65,211 

137 

5,160 

102 

2,885 

3,812,833 

5,958 

11,300 

7,877 

7,231,747 

12,676 

1,929,105 

10,271,501 

3,014 

16,049 

4,523 

18,561 

290 

3,972,480 

6,207 

2,267 

4,046,564 

6,323 

9,924 

446,521 

698 

9,387 

1,810,000 

2,828 

1,724 

728 

85,872,614 

134,176 

249,366 

154,741,349 

241 ,800 

255,327 

Heights  of  Principal  Mountains. 

Name. 

NORTH  AMERICA. 

Location. 

Height 
in  feet. 

Mt.  Logan 

. . Canada  . 

19,500 

Mt.  St.  Elias 

. . Canada  . 

18,010 

Popocatepetl 

Mexico  . 

17,784 

Orizaba 

. . Mexico  . 

17,380 

Mt.  Hooker 

Canada  . 

15,700 

Mt.  Brown 

. . Canada  . 

10,000 

Mt.  Whitney 

. . California 

14,898 

Mt.  Rainier 

Washington  . 

14,444 

Mt.  Shasta 

. . California 

14,440 

Longs  peak 

. . Colorado 

14,271 

Pikes  peak 

Colorado 

14,147 

Fremonts  peak 

Wyoming 

13,576 

Wrangell  . 

Alaska  . 

12,006 

Mt.  Hood  . 

Oregon  . 

11,934 

Mt.  Mitchell 

North  Carolina 

0,711 

Mt.  Washington 

New  Hampshire  . 

0,288 

Mt.  Marcy 

New  York 

5,467 

Mt.  Katahdin  . 

Maine  . 

5,385 

Jorullo 

Mexico  . 

4,205 

Aconcagna 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Chile  . 

22,422 

Chimborazo 

Ecuador 

21,420 

Arequipa  . 

Peru 

20,320 

Cotopaxi  . 

. . Ecuador 

18,880 

Tolima 

Colombia 

18,009 

Roraima  . 

Venezuela 

7,874 

Itacolumi  . 

. . Brazil 

5,740 

Itambe 

Brazil  . 

4,300 

Elbruz 

EUR0PE. 

Russia  . 

18,526 

Mt.  Blanc 

. . France  . 

15,810 

Monte  Rosa 

Italy 

15,208 

Olympus  . 

. . Turkey  . 

9,745 

Etna  . 

Sicily 

9,652 

Ymesfield  . 

. . Norway 

8,543 

Ben-Nevis 

. . Scotland 

4,368 

Vesuvius  . 

Italy 

3,948 

Snowdon  . 

Wales  . 

3,571 

Stromboli  . 

. . Lipari  Islands 

3,090 

Mt.  Everest 

ASIA. 

. . India 

29,002 

Dapsang  . 

. . Tibet 

28,278 

Kunchinjunga  . 

India 

28,156 

Demavend 

. ..  Persia  . 

18,500 

Ararat 

Turkey  . 

17,260 

Mt.  Hermon 

Palestine 

11,000 

Mt.  Sinai  . 

. . Turkey  . 

8,593 

Kilima-Njaro  . 

AFRICA. 

East  Africa  . 

19,000 

Kenia 

East  Africa  . 

18,045 

Tenerife  . 

. . Canary  Islands 

12,000 

11,400 

Mt.  Miltsin 

. . Morocco 

Peak  of  Pico 

. . Azores  . 

7,013 

Manna  Loa 

OCEANIA. 

. . Hawaiian  Islands . 

13,000 

Mt.  Kosciusco  . 

. . Australia 

7,170 

Kilauea  . 

. . Hawaiian  Islands  . 

4,040 

Name. 

Aral  Sea 
Caspian  Sea  . 
Dead  Sea 
Great  Salt  Lake 
Lake  Baikal  . 
Lake  Chapala 
Lake  Erie 
Lake  Huron  . 
Lake  Ladoga  . 
Lake  Michigan 
Lake  Nicaragua 
Lake  Ontario 
Lake  Superior 
Lake  Titicaca 
Lake  Victoria 


Principal  Lakes  of  the  World. 


Area  in 

Elevation 

Depth 
in  Feet. 

Sq.  Miles. 

in  Feet. 

26,000 

48 

170,000 

— 84 

3,000 

320 

— 1,312 

700 

2,000 

4,200 

00 

12,500 

490 

4,500 

7,000 

497 

120 

20,000 

555 

700 

7,000 

55 

730 

22,000 

590 

875 

3,050 

6,950 

130 

240 

210 

735 

31  ,.500 

628 

1,008 

4,000 

40,000 

12,847 

3,300 

. . . 

180 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OE  STATES. 


Leading  Cities 
of  the  United  States. 


Cities. 

Population 

(1890). 

New  York,  N.  Y.  . 

1,515,301 

Chicago,  111.  . . . 

1,099,850 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  . 

1,046,964 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  . . 

806,343 

St.  Louis,  Mo.  . . 

451,770 

Boston,  Mass.  . . 

448,477 

Baltimore,  Md.  . . 

434,439 

San  Prancisco,  Cal. 

298,997 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

296,908 

Cleveland,  Ohio  . . 

261,353 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.  . . 

255,664 

New  Orleans,  La.  . 

242,039 

Pittsburg,  Pa.  . . 

238,617 

Washington,  D.  C.  . 

230,392 

Detroit,  Mich.  . . 

205,876 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

204,468 

Newark,  N.  J.  . . 

181,830 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

164,738 

Jersey  City,  N.  J.  . 

163,003 

Louis  ville,  Ky.  . . 

161,129 

Omaha,  Neb.  . . . 

140,452 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

133,896 

St.  Paul,  Minn.  . . 

133,156 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  . 

132,716 

Providence,  K.  I. 

132,146 

Denver,  Colo. 

106,713 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  . 

105,436 

Allegheny,  Pa.  . . 

105,287 

Albany,  N.  Y.  . . 

94,923 

Columbus,  O. . . . 

88,150 

Syracuse,  N.  Y.  . . 

88,143 

Worcester,  Mass. 

84,655 

Toledo,  O 

81,434 

Richmond,  Ya.  . . 

81,388 

New  Haven,  Conn.  . 

81,298 

Paterson,  N.  J.  . . 

78,347 

Lowell,  Mass.  . . 

77,696 

Nashville,  Tenn. 

76,168 

Scranton,  Pa. . . . 

75,215 

Fall  River,  Mass.  . 

74,398 

Cambridge,  Mass.  . 

70,028 

Atlanta,  Ga.  . . . 

65,553 

Memphis,  Tenn.  . . 

64,495 

The  United  States. 


States  and 
Territories. 

Alabama  . . . 

Area  in 
Square  Miles. 

. 52,250 

Alaska  . . . 

. 531,410 

Arizona  . . . 

. 113,020 

Arkansas  . . 

. 53,850 

California  . . 

. 158,360 

Colorado  . . . 

. 103,925 

Connecticut  . . 

4,990 

Delaware  . . 

2,050 

District  of  Columbia  . 

70 

Florida  . . . 

. 58,680 

Georgia  . . . 

. 59,475 

Idaho  .... 

. 84,800 

Illinois  . . . 

. 56,650 

Indiana  . . . 

. 36,350 

Indian  Territory 

. 31,400 

Iowa  .... 

. 56,025 

Kansas  . . . 

. 82,080 

Kentucky  . . 

. 40,400 

Louisiana  . . 

. 48,720 

Maine  .... 

. 33,040 

Maryland  . . 

. 12,210 
8,315 

Massachusetts  . 

Michigan . . . 

. 58,915 

Minnesota  . . 

. 83,365 

Mississippi  . . 

. 46,810 

Missouri  . . . 

. 69,415 

Montana  . . . 

. 146,080 

Nebraska . . . 

. 77,510 

Nevada  . . . 

. 110,700 

New  Hampshire 

9,305 

New  Jersey  . . 

7,815 

New  Mexico 

. 122,580 

New  York  . . 

. 49,170 

1,617,947 
182,719 
3,672,316 
61,834 
313,767 
5,258,014 
345,506 
1,151,149 
328,808 
1,767,518 
2,235,523 
207,905 
332,422 
1,655,980 
349,390 
762,794 
1 ,686,880 
•60,705 


POPULATION 

(1890). 

1,513,017 

31,795 

59,620 

1,128,179 

1,208,130 

412,198 

746,258 

168,493 

230,392 

391,422 

1,837,353 

84,385 

3,826,351 

2,192,404 

186,490 

1,911,896 

1,427,096 

1,858,635 

1,118,587 

661,086 

1,042,390 

2,238,943 

2,093,889 

1,301,826 

1,289,600 

2,679,184 

132,159 

1,058,910 

45,761 

376,530 

1,444,933 

153,593 

5,997,853 


North  Carolina  . 

. 52,250 

North  Dakota  . . 

. 70,795 

Ohio 

. 41,060 

Oklahoma  . . . 

. 39,030 

Oregon  .... 

. 96,030 

Pennsylvania  . . 

. 45,215 

Rhode  Island  . . 

1,250 

South  Carolina  . . 

. 30,570 

South  Dakota  . . 

. 77,650 

Tennessee  . . . 

. 42,050 

Texas  

. 265,780 

Utah 

. 84,970 

Vermont  .... 

9,565 

Virginia  .... 

. 42,450 

Washington  . . . 

. 69,180 

West  Virginia  . 

. 24,780 

Wisconsin  . . . 

. 56,040 

Wyoming  . . . 

. 97,890 

States  Having  the  Largest 
Negro  Population. 


States. 

1890. 

Georgia  .... 

858,996 

Mississippi  . . . 

744,749 

South  Carolina  . . 

689,141 

Alabama  .... 

679,299 

Virginia  .... 

635,858 

North  Carolina . . 

562,565 

Louisiana  . . . 

560,192 

Texas  

489,588 

Tennessee  . . . 

430,881 

Arkansas . •.  . . 

309,427 

REFERENCE  TABLES, 


181 


Akron,  0.  . . . 
Alameda,  Cal. 
Albany,  N.Y.  . . 

Alexandria,  Va.  . 
Alleglieny,  Pa. 
Allentown,  Pa. 
Alpena,  Mich. 
Alton,  111.  . . . 

Altoona,  Pa.  . . 
Amsterdam,  N.Y. 
Anderson,  Ind.  . 
Ansonia,  Conn.  . 
Appleton,  Wis.  #. 
Aslieville,  N.C. 
Atcliison,  Kan. 
Atlanta,  Ga.  . . 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 
Aubum,  Me.  . . 

Auburn,  N.  Y. 
Augusta,  Ga.  . . 

Augusta,  Me.  . . 
Aurora,  111.  . . 

Austin,  Tex.  . . 


Baltimore,  Md.  . 
Bangor,  Me.  . . 

Baton  llouge,  La. 
Battle  Creek,  Mich. 
Bay  City,  Mich.  . 
Bayonne,  N.J. 
Beatrice,  Neb. 
Belleville,  Hl.  . . 
Beverly,  Mass. 
Biddeford,  Me.  . 
Binghamton,  N.Y. 
Birmingham,  Ala. 
Bloomington,  Bl. 
Boston,  Mass.  . . 

Bradford,  Pa.  . . 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Bridgeton,  N.J.  . 
Brockton,  Mass.  . 
Brookline,  Mass.  . 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.  . 
Buffalo,  N.Y.  . . 

Burlington,  lo. 
Burlington,  Vt.  . 
Butte,  Mont.  . . 

Cairo,  Hl.  . . . 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
Camden,  N.J.  . . 

Canton,  O.  . . . 

Carbondale,  Pa.  . 
Cedar  Rapids,  lo. 
Charleston,  S.C.  . 
Charlotte,  N.C.  . . 
Chattanooga,  Tenn.  . 
Chelsea,  Mass.  . . 

Chcster,  Pa.  . . . 

Cheyenne,  Wy.  . . 

Chicago,  111.  . . i 

Chicopee,  Mass.  . . 

Chillicothe,  O.  '.  . 
Cincinnati,  0.  . . . 

Cleveland,  O.  . . . 

Clinton,  lo.  . . . 

Clinton,  Mass.  . . 

Cohoes,  N.Y.  . . . 

Colorado  Sp’gs,  Col. 
Columbia,  1’a.  . . 

Columbia,  S.C.  . . 

Columbus,  Ga.  . . 

Columbus,  O.  . . . 

Concord,  N.H.  . . 
Council  Bluffs,  lo.  . 


Cities  and  Towns  of  the  United  States 

Having  a Population  of  over  10,000. 


Census  of  1890. 


. 27,001 
. 11,165 

. 94,923 

. 14,339 

. 105,287 
. 25,228 
. 11,283 

. 10,294 

. 30,337 
. 17,336 
. 10,741 

. 10,342 

. 11,869 

. 10,235 
. 13,963 

. 65,533 
. 13,055 

. 11,250 

. 25,858 
. 33,300 
. 10,527 

. 19,688 
. 14,575 


434,439 

19.103 
10,478 
13,197 
27,839 
19,033 
13,836 
15,361 
10,821 
14,443 
35,005 
26,178 
20,484 

448,477 

10,514 

48,866 

11,424 

27,294 

12.103 
806,343 
255,664 

22,565 

14,590 

10,723 


10,324 

70,028 

68,313 

26,189 

10,833 

18,020 

54,955 

11,557 

29,100 

27,909 

20,226 

11,690 

,099,850 

14,050 

11,288 

296,908 

261,353 

13,619 

10,424 

22,509 

11,140 

10,599 

15,353 

17,303 

88,150 

17,004 

21,474 


Covington,  Ky.  . . 37,371 
Cumberland,  Md.  . 12,729 

Dallas,  Tex.  . . . 38,007 

Danbury,  Conn.  . . 16,552 

Danville,  111.  . . . 11,491 

Ilanville,  Va.  . . . 10,305 

Davenport,  lo.  . . 26,872 

Dayton,  O.  ...  61,220 
Deeatur,  111.  . . . 16,841 

Denison,  Tex.  . . . 10,958 

Denver,  Col.  . . . 106,713 

Des  Moines,  lo.  . . 50,093 

Detroit,  Mich.  . . 205,876 

Dover,  N.H.  . . . 12,790 

Dubuque,  lo.  . . . 30,311 

Duluth,  Minn.  . . 33,115 

East  Liverpool,  O.  . 10,956 
Easton,  Pa.  . . . 14,481 

East  Portland,  Ore.  . 10,532 

East  St.  Louis,  III.  . 15,169 

Eau  Claire,  Wis.  . . 17,415 

Edgewater,  N.Y.  . 14,265 

Elgin,  111 17,823 

Elizabeth,  N.J.  . . 37,764 

Elkhart,  Ind.  . . . 11,360 

Elmira,  N.Y.  . . . 30,893 

El  Paso,  Tex.  . . . 10,338 

Erie,  Pa 40,634 

Evansville,  Ind.  . . 50,756 

Everett,  Mass.  . . 11,068 

Fall  River,  Mass.  . 74,398 

Findlay,  O.  . . . 18,553 

Fitchburg,  Mass.  . . 22,037 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis.  . 12,024 

Fort  Scott,  Kan.  . . 11,946 

Fort  Smith,  Ark.  . 11,311 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind.  . 35,393 

Fort  Wortli,  Tex.  . 23,076 

Freeport,  Bl.  . . . 10,189 

Fresno,  Cal.  . . . 10,818 

Galesburg,  Bl.  . . 15,264 

Galveston,  Tex.  . . 29,084 

Gloucester,  Mass.  . 24,651 
Gloversville,  N.Y.  . 13,864 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  60,278 
Greenwich,  Conn.  . 10,131 

Hagerstown,  Md.  . 10,118 

Hamilton,  O.  . . . 17,565 

Kannibal,  Mo.  . . 12,857 

Harrisburg,  Pa.  . . 39,385 

Hartford,  Conn.  . . 63,230 

Hastings,  Neb.  . . 13,584 

Ilaverhill,  Mass.  . . 27,412 

Hazleton,  Pa.  . . . 11,872 

Ilelena,  Mont.  . . 13,834 

Hoboken,  N.J.  . . 43,648 

Ilolyoke,  Mass.  . . 35,637 

Homellsville,  N.Y.  . 10,996 

Houston,  Tex.  . . 27,557 

Iluntington,  W.  Va. . 10,108 

Hyde  Park,  Mass.  . 10,193 

Indianapolis,  Ind.  . 105,436 
Ironton,  O.  ...  10,939 

Ishpeming,  Mich.  . 11,197 
Ithaca,  N.Y.  . . . 11,079 

Jackson,  Mich.  . . 20,798 

Jackson,  Tenn.  . . 10,039 

Jacksonville,  Fla.  . 17,201 


Jacksonville,  Bl.  . . 12,935 
Jamestown,  N.Y.  . 16,038 

Janesville,  Wis.  . . 10,836 

Jeffersonville,  Ind.  . 10,666 

Jersey  City,  N.J.  . . 163,003 

Johnstown,  Pa.  . . 21,805 

Joliet,  Bl 23,264 

Kalamazoo,  Mich.  . 17,853 
Kansas  City,  Kan.  . 38,316 
Kansas  City,  Mo.  . 132,716 
Keokuk,  lo.  . . . 14,101 

Key  West,  Fla.  . . 18,080 

Kingston,  N.Y.  . . 21,261 

Knoxville,  Tenn.  . . 22,635 

Lacrosse,  Wis.  . . 25,090 

Lafayette,  Ind.  . . 16,243 

Lancaster,  Pa.  . . 32,011 
Lansing,  Mich.  . . 13,102 

Lansingburg,  N.Y.  . 10,550 

Laredo,  Tex.  . . . 11,319 

Lawrence,  Mass.  . . 44,654 

Leadville,  Col.  . . 10,384 

Leavenworth,  Kan.  . 19,768 

Lebanon,  Pa.  . . . 14,664 

Lewiston,  Me.  . . 21,701 

Lexington,  Ky.  . . 21,567 

Lima,  0 15,981 

Lincoln,  Neb.  . . . 66,154 

Lincoln,  R.I.  . . . 20,355 

Little  Rock,  Ark.  . 25,874 
Lockport,  N.Y.  . . 16,038 

Logansport,  Ind.  . . 13,328 

Long  Isl’d  City,  N.Y.  30,506 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.  . 50,395 

Louisville,  Ky.  . . 161,129 

Lowell,  Mass.  . . . 77,696 

Lynchburg,  Va.  . . 19,709 

Lynn,  Mass.  . . . 55,727 

McKeesport,  Pa.  . . 20,741 

Macon,  Ga.  . . . 22,746 

Madison,  Wis.  . . 13,426 

Mahanoy,  Pa.  . . . 11,286 

Malden,  Mass.  . . 23,031 

Manchester,  N.H.  . 44,126 
Manistee,  Mich.  . . 12,812 

Mansfield,  O.  . . . 13,473 

Marinette,  Wis.  . . 11,623 

Marlboro’,  Mass.  . 13,805 

Massillon,  O.  . . . 10,092 

- Medford,  Mass.  . . 11,079 

Memphis,  Tenn.  . . 64,495 

Menominee,  Mich.  . 10,630 

Meriden,  Conn.  . . 21,652 
Meridian,  Miss.  . . 10,624 

Michigan  City,  Ind.  . 10,776 

Middletown.  N.Y.  . 11,977 

Millville,  N.J.  . . . 10,002 

Milwaukee,  Wis.  . 204,468 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  . 164,738 
Mobile,  Ala.  . . . 31,076 

Moline,  111.  . . . 12,000 

Montgomery,  Ala.  . 21,883 
Mt.  Vemon,  N.Y.  . 10,830 

Muncie,  Ind.  . . . 11,345 

Muscatine,  lo.  . . 11,464 

Muskegon,  Mich.  . 22,702 

Nanticoke,  Pa.  . . 10,044 
Nashua,  N.H.  . . . 19,311 
Nashville,  Tenn.  . . 76,168 

Natchez,  Miss.  . . 10,101 

Nebraska  City,  Neb.  11,494 
New  Albany,  Ind.  . 21,069 


Newark,  N.J.  . . 181,830 
Newark,  O.  ...  14,270 

New  Bedford,  Mass.  40,733 
New  Brighton,  N.Y.  16,423 
New  Britain,  Conn.  . 16,519 

New  Brunswick,  N.J.  18,603 
Newburgh,  N.Y.  . . 23,087 

Newburyport,  Mass.  13,947 
Newcastle,  Pa.  . . 11,600 

New  Haven,  Conn.  . 81,298 
New  London,  Conn.  13,757 
New  Orleans,  La.  . 242,039 
Newport,  Ky.  . . . 24,918 
Newport,  R.I.  . . . 19,457 

Newton,  Mass.  . . 24,379 
New  York,  N.Y.  . 1,515,301 

Norfolk,  Va.  . . . 34,871 

Norristown,  Pa.  . . 19,791 

North  Adams,  Mass.  16,074 
Northampton,  Mass.  14,990 
Norwalk,  Conn.  . . 17,747 

Norwich,  Conn.  . . 16,156 

Oakland,  Cal.  . . . 48,682 

Ogden,  Utah  . . . 14,889 

Ogdensburgh,  N.Y.  . 11,662 

Oil  City,  Pa.  . . . 10,932 

Omaha,  Neb.  . . . 140,452 

Orange,  N.J.  . . . 18,844 

Oshkosh,  Wis.  . . 22,836 

Oswego,  N.Y.  . . . 21,842 

Ottumwa,  lo.  . . . 14,001 

Paducah,  Ky.  . . . 12,797 

Passaic,  N.J.  . . . 13,028 

Paterson,  N.J.  . . 78,347 

Pawtucket,  R.I.  . . -27,633 
Peabody,  Mass.  . . 10,158 

Pensacola,  Fla.  . . 11,750 

Peoria,  Bl 41,024 

Petersburgh,  Va.  . 22,680 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  1,046,964 
Pittsburg,  Pa.  . . . 238,617 

Pittsfield,  Mass.  . . 17,281 

Pittston,  Pa.  . . . 10,302 

Plainfield,  N.J.  . . 11,267 

Port  Huron,  Mich..  . 13,543 

Portland,  Me.  . . . 36,425 

Portland,  Ore.  . . 46,385 

Portsmouth,  O.  . . 12,394 

Portsmoutb,  Va.  . . 13,268 

Pottstown,  Pa.  . . 13,285 

Pottsville,  Pa.  . . . 14,117 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.  . 22,206 
Providence,  R.I.  . . 132,146 
Pueblo,  Col.  . . . 24,558 

Quincy,  111.  . . . 31,494 

Quincy,  Mass.  . . 16,723 

Racine,  Wis.  . . . 21,014 
Raleigh,  N.C.  . . . 12,678 

Reading,  Pa.  . . . 68,661 

Richmond,  Ind.  . . 16,608 

Richmond,  Va.  . . 81,388 
Roanoke,  Va.  . . . 16,159 
Rochester,  N.Y.  . . 133,896 

Rockford,  Bl.  . . . 23,684 
Rock  Island,  Bl.  . . 13,634 

Rome,  N.Y.  . . . 14,991 

Rutland,  Vt.  . . . 11,760 

Sacramento,  Cal.  . 26,386 
Saginaw,  Mich.  . . 46,322 

St.  Joseph,  Mo.  . . 62,324 

St.  Louis,  Mo.  . . 461,770 


St.  Paul,  Minn.  . . 133,156 

Salem,  Mass.  . . . 30,801 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  44,843 
San  Antonio,  Tex.  . 37,673 
San  Diego,  Cal.  . . 16,159 

Sandusky,  O.  . . . 18,471 

San  Francisco,  Cal.  . 298,997 
San  José,  Cal.  . . 18,060 

Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y.  11,975 
Savannah,  Ga.  . . 43,189 
Schenectady,  N.Y.  . 19,902 

Scranton,  Pa.  . . . 75,215 

Seattle,  Wash.  . . 42,837 
Sedalia,  Mo.  . . . 14,068 

Shamokin,  Pa.  . . 14,403 

Sheboygan,  Wis.  . 16,359 

Slienandoah,  Pa.  . 15,944 

Shreveport,  La.  . . 11,979 

Sioux  City,  lo.  . . 37,806 

Sioux  Falls,  S.D.  . 10,177 

Somerville,  Mass.  . 40,152 
South  Bend,  Ind.  . 21,819 
So.  Bethlehem,  Pa.  . 10,302 

Spokane,  Wash.  . . 19,922 

Springfield,  Bl.  . . 24,963 
Springfield,  Mass.  . 44,179 
Springfield,  Mo.  . . 21,850 

Springfield,  O.  . . 31,896 
Stamford,  Conn.  . . 15,700 

Steubenville,  O.  . . 13,394 

Stillwater,  Minn.  . 11,260 

Stockton,  Cal.  . . 14,424 

Streator,  111.  . . . 11,414 

Superior,  Wis.  . . 11,983 

Syracuse,  N.Y.  . . 88,143 

Tacoma,  Wash.  . . 36,006 

Taunton,  Mass.  . . 25,448 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.  . 30,217 

Tiffin,  0 10,801 

Toledo,  0 81,434 

Topeka,  Kan.  . . . 31,007 

Trenton,  N.J.  . . . 67,458 

Troy,  N.Y.  ...  60,966 

Union,  N.J.  . . . 10,643 
Utica,  N.Y.  ...  44,007 

Vicksburg,  Miss.  . . 13,373 

Waco,  Tex.  . . . 14,445 
Waltliam,  Mass.  . . 18,707 

Warwick,  R.I.  . . 17,761 

Washington,  D.C.  . 230,392 
Waterbury,  Conn.  . 28,646 

Watertown,  N.Y.  . 14,725 

West  Bay  City,  Mich.  12,981 
West  Troy,  N.Y.  . 12,967 

Weymouth,  Mass.  . 10,866 

Wheeling,  W.Va.  . 34,522 
Wichita,  Kan.  . . 23,853 
Wilkesbarre,  Pa.  . . 37,718 

Williamsport,  Pa.  . 27,132 
Wilmington,  Del.  . 61,431 
Wilmington,  N.C.  . 20,056 
Winona,  Minn.  . . 18,208 

Wobum,  Mass.  . . 13,499 

Woonsocket,  R.I.  . 20,830 

Worcester,  Mass.  . 84,655 

Yonkers,  N.Y.  . . 32,033 

York,  Pa 20,793 

Youngstown,  O.  . . 33,220 

Zanesville,  O.  . . 21,009 


PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


Key.  — ale,  cåre,  arm,  fingl ; all,  eve,  end,  hSr,  recgnt ; lee,  Hl,  admjral ; old,  for,  on,  anchor ; use,  up,  ffir,  awful ; food,  fcJ6t ; ch  as  in  chop ; g as  in  go ; ng  as  in  sing ; n as 
in  ink  ; th  as  in  thin  ; th  as  in  the ; fl  as  in  banyan  ; oi  as  in  oil*;  ow  as  in  cow  ; n nearly  like  ng  in  sing  ( French  nasal). 


Abaco,  å'bå-ko. 

Aberdeen,  åb-gr-dén'. 

Abomey,  åb-6-må'. 

Abyssinia,  åb-is-sm'1-3. 

Acapulco,  å-kå-pool'ko. 

Acaray,  a-kar'a. 

Aconcagua,  å-kon-kå'gwå. 
Acropolis,  å-kropo-lls. 

Adelaide,  iUTg-låd. 

Aden,  ådgn. 

Adige,  åd  l-je. 

Adirondack,  åd-i-ron'dgk. 

Adrian,  ådri-gn. 

Adrianople,  &a-ri-gn-o'pl. 
Adriatic,  åd-ré-åt  lk. 

Ægean,  é-jegn. 

Afghånistån,  åf-gån-is-tån'. 
Africa,  åfri-kg. 

Aguas  Calientes,  å'guås  kå-lé-ån'- 
tés. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  aks-la-slia-pel' . 
Ajaccio,  å-yåt'clid. 

Akron,  åk  ron. 

Alabama,  ål-g-båmg. 

Alameda,  å-lå-mådg. 

Alamo,  å'la-mo. 

Alaska,  å-lås'kg. 

Albany,  al'bg-ni. 

Albemarle,  ålbg-mårl. 

Alberta,  ål-bértg. 

Albuquerque,  ål-boo-kår'kå. 
Alderney,  aldgr-iu. 

Aleutian,  å-lu'shi-311. 

Alexandria,  ål-egs-åndn-g. 
Algeria,  ål-jé'ri-å. 

Algiers,  ål-jérz'. 

Alleghany,  ål'g-ga-m. 

Allegheny,  ålg-gå-m. 

Alpena,  ål-péng. 

Alpine,  ålpin. 

Altai,  Sl-tr. 

Altamalia,  al-tg-mg-ha'. 

Altoona,  ål-too'ng. 

Amadeus,  åm-g-déus. 

Amazon,  åm'g-zon. 

Ameer,  å-mér'. 

Amiens,  å'mi-åN. 

Amsterdam,  åm'stgr-dåm. 

Arnur,  å-moor'. 

Anaconda,  ån-g-kon'dg. 

Anam,  å-nåm'. 

Andean,  ån-dé'gn. 

Andes,  åndéz. 

Andorra,  ån-dor'rå. 

Androscoggin,  ån-drgs-cog'm. 
Angers,  oN-zliå'. 

Anglesey,  ån'gl-sé. 

Annapous,  ån-nåp'o-lis. 

Auniston,  ån'is-tøn. 

Antarctic,  ån-tark'tik. 

Anticosti,  jln-tT-kos  ti. 

Antigua,  ån-té'gg. 

Antilles,  an-til  léz,  or  oN'tel'. 
Antofagasta,  ån-to-få-gåstå. 
Antwerp,  ånt/wgrp. 

Apache,  a-pa  cha. 

Apalachee,  åp-3-låch'é. 
Apalachicola,  å-pg-låch-i-kolå. 
Apennines,  åp'gn-irinz. 

Apia,  å'pé-å. 

Appalacliian,  åp-pg-lå'chi-gn. 
Appomattox,  ap-po-måt  tyks. 
Apteryx,  åp'té-rix. 

Arab,  åråb. 

Arabian,  å-råbi-gn. 

Arabic,  år'å-bik. 

Aral,  &r  gl. 

Ararat,  år'g-råt. 

Arcliangel,  årk-ån'jgl. 
Arcliipelago,  ar-ki-pel  a-go. 
Arctic,  årktik. 

Ardennes,  år-d§n'. 

Arequipa,  a-ra-ké  pa. 

Argentine,  år'jen-tln. 

Arizona,  år-i-zo'ng. 

Arkansas,  år'kgn-sa'.  _ 

Aimadillo,  år-må-diTlo. 

Arnhem,  årn'hSm. 

Arno,  år'no. 

Artliabaska,  år-tlig-båskg. 
Arvan,  år'ygn. 

Asben,  ås-ben'. 


Asheville,  åsh'vil. 

Asia,  å'shi-3. 

Asiatic,  a-sln-at'rk. 

Assiniboia,  ås-sin-i-boi'a. 
Assiniboin,  ås-sm'i-boin. 

Astoria,  ås-to'ri-g. 

Astrakhan,  ås-trå-kån'. 

Atacama,  å-tå-kå'må. 

Atbara,  åt-bå'rå. 

Atchafalaya,  åcli-gf-g-Rg. 
AtchLson,  åchi-sgn. 

Athabasca,  ath-g-båskg. 

Athens,  åthenz. 

Atlanta,  åt-lån'tg. 

Atlantic,  åt-lån'tik. 

Atoll,  å-tol'. 

Auburn,  abfirn. 

Auckland,  ak'lgnd. 

Augusta,  a-gustg. 

Aurora,  a-rdrg. 

Au  Sable,  a sa' bl. 

Austin,  as'tin. 

Australia,  as-tråli-g. 

Australis,  as-trå'lis. 

Austria,  as^ri-g. 

Avon,  a'vQn. 

Azov,  å-zov'. 

Azores,  g-zdrz'. 

Bablroussa,  bab-i-roos'sg. 
Baliama,  bg-håmg. 

Bahia,  bå-é  å. 

Baikal,  bl' kål. 

Baku,  Då-koo'. 

Balearic,  bål-g-år'ik. 

Bali,  bålé. 

Balize,  bå-léz'. 

Balkan,  bål-kån'. 

Balkash,  bål-kåsh'. 

Ballarat,  bål-lg-råt'. 

Baltic,  baltik. 

Baltimore,  bakti-mgr  or  -mor. 
Baluchistan,  bå-lod-chis-tan' . 
Banca,  bånkg. 

Bangkok,  ban'kok'. 

Bangor,  bångor. 

Banteng,  bånteng. 

Bantry,  hån' tri. 

Barbuda,  bår-boo'då. 

Barcelona,  bår-sg-lo'nå. 

Barmen,  båPmgn. 

Basel,  båzgl. 

Basque,  bask. 

Batavia,  bå-ta/vi-å. 

Baton  Rouge,  båt-un  roozh'. 

Bay  onne,  bå-yon'. 

Bayou,  bl'oo. 

Beatrice,  bé'3-trés. 

Beaufort,  bokort  (N.  C.)  or  bu'- 
furt  (S.  C.). 

Bechuanaland,  bek-u-ån'g-lånd. 
Bedouin,  bed'66-én. 

Belfast,  bSl  fast  (Me.)  or  bel-fåst' 
(Ireland). 

Belgium,  bel  ji-um. 

Belgrade,  bél-gråd'. 

Bellaire,  bSl-år'. 

Beile  Isle,  bél-ll'. 

Benares,  bén-å'rez. 

Bengal,  bén-gal'. 

Benguela,  bén-gå  lå. 

Ben-Lomond,  bén-lo'mQnd. 
Ben-Nevis,  bSn-nev'is. 

Benue,  ben-oo-é'. 

Berber,  bér'bgr. 

Berea,  bér  é-g. 

Bergwerk,  bérg'vgrk. 

Bering,  bé  ring. 

Berlin,  b6r'lm  or  Ger.  b§r-lén'. 
Beimuda,  bfii*-mu'dg. 

Bern.  bérn. 

Bethlehem,  beth  lg-hSm. 

Bhutan,  bod-tan'. 

Biddeford,  bidVf^rd. 

Billiton,  bil  li-ton'. 

Binghamton,  bing'gm-tQn. 
Birkenhead,  bérk'§n-hed. 
Birmingham,  bSr'ming-um. 
Biscay,  bis'kå. 

Bismarck,  bis' mark. 

Bissao,  bis-sowN'. 

Bloemfontein,  blém-fon't!n. 


Bogotå,  bo-go-tå'. 

Bonmerwald^  be  mgr-vålt. 

Boisé,  boi-zå^ 

Bokhara,  bok-å'rå. 

Bolan,  bo'lgn. 

Bolivia,  bQ-liv'1-3. 

Bologna,  bo-lon'yå. 

Boma,  bo'må. 

Bombay,  bom-bå'. 

Boothia,  boo'thi-g. 

Bordeaux,  bor-do'. 

Borealis,  bo-ré-å'lis. 

Borgne,  borfi. 

Borneo,  bor  né-o. 

Bosna-Serai,  bos-nå-ser-l'. 

Bosnia,  boz  ni -å. 

Bosporus,  bos  po-rus. 

Botnnia,  bSth  ni-g. 

Boyne,  boin. 

Brahma,  brå'mg. 

Brahmaputra,  brå-mg-poo'trg. 
Brazil,  brg-zil'. 

Brazos,  brå  zgs. 

Bremen,  brå  mén. 

Breslau,  brés'low. 

Brest,  brest. 

Brindisi,  brén'dé-se. 

Brisbane,  bris'bån. 

Brooklyn,  brook  lin. 

Brulé,  bru' lå. 

Brunswick,  brunz'wik. 

Brussels,  brus'selz. 

Bucharest,  bu-kg-rest'. 

Budapest,  boo'dg-pést. 

Buddha,  bood'dg. 

Buenos  Ayres,  bo'nus  å'riz  or  Sp. 

bwånos  1'res. 

Bulgaria,  bool-gåri-g. 

Burlington,  bur'ling-tQn. 

Burma,  bur 'må. 

Butte,  but. 

Cadillac,  kåd-il-låk'. 

Cagliari,  kål  yå-ré. 

Cairo,  kår'o  (U.  S.);  ki'ro  (Egypt). 
Calais,  kål  is  (U.  S.) ; kå-lå' 
(France). 

Calcutta,  kål-kut'tg. 

Caledonia,  kal-g-do  m-g. 
California,  kål-!-for'ni-g. 

Callao,  kål-lå  o. 

Cambodia,  kåm-bo'de-g. 
Cambrian,  kåm'bri-an. 

Cambridge,  kåm  bi-ij. 

Campeche,  kåm-på'chå. 

Campos,  kåm'pos. 

Canjida,  kån'g-dg. 

Canadian,  kg-nå'd§-gn. 

Canary,  kg-nå  ri. 

Candia,  kån'dg-å. 

Cantabrian,  kån-tå  bri-gn. 

Canton,  kån'tgn  (U.  S.) ; kån-ton' 
(China). 

Cape  Breton,  bret/gn. 

Caråcas,  kå-rå'kås. 

Cardiff,  kår'dif. 

Cardigan,  kår'de-ggn. 

Caribbean,  kår-ib-bé  gn. 
Carmarthen,  kår-mår  then. 
Carolina,  kår-5-li'ng. 

Carpathian,  kår-på  tln-gn. 
Carpentaria,  kår-pen-ta  rg-g. 
Cartagena,  kår-tg-jé'ng. 

Cascade,  kås-kåd'. 

Caspian,  kås'pi-gn. 

Cassava,  kås  sg-vg. 

Cassiquiari,  kå-sé-ké-å're. 
Catoche,  kå-to'shå. 

Caucasian,  ka-kå'slign. 

Caucasus,  k;i'kg-sus. 

Cayenne,  kå-ySn'. 

Cavuga,  kå-^oo  gg. 

Celebes,  sel  g-bez. 

Cenis,  sg-né'. 

Cettinje,  cliå-tén'yå. 

Cévennes,  så-vSnn'. 

Ceylon,  sé-lon'. 

Chad,  chåd. 

Chamouni,  shå-moo-né'. 
Champlain,  sham-plån'. 
Chandeleur,  shån-dg-loor'. 
Chapala,  shå-på'lå. 


Charlotte,  shår'lQt. 

Chatliam,  chåt'gm. 
Chattahoochee,  chåt-tg-hoo'ché. 
Chattanooga,  chåt-tå-noo'gg. 
Chauta^qiia,  chg-ta'kwg. 

Chelan,  ché-lån'. 

Chelsea,  chel  sé. 

Chemnitz,  kém  nits. 

Cherbourg,  shér  burg. 

Cherokee,  chér-o-ké'. 
Chesapeake,  chés'g-pék. 
Chesuncook,  chg-sun'k66k. 
Clieviot,  chiv'g-ut. 

Cheyenne,  shl-€n'. 

Chicago,  shg-ka^o. 

Chickasaw,  cliik  g-sg. 
Chickasawha,  chik-g-s.gVg. 
Chihuahua,  ché-wå'wå. 

Chile,  ché  lå. 

Chillicothe,  chil-li-koth'g. 
Chimborazo,  chim-bo-rå  zo. 
Chinese,  chl  néz. 

Chippewa,  chip'pg-wå. 

Choctaw,  cliok't«g. 

Christiania,  kris-té-å'né-å. 
Cimarron,  sé-må-ron'. 

Cinchona,  sin-ko  ng. 

Cincinnati,  sin-sin-nå'ti. 

Clyde,  klid. 

Cochin  China,  ko  chin  chl  ng. 
Coeur  d’ Alene,  kfir-då-lån'. 
Colioes,  ko-hoz'. 

Colima,  ko-lé'må. 

Cologne,  ko-lon'. 

Colombia,  ko-lom'bé-å. 

Colon,  ko-lon'. 

Colorado,  kol-g-rå'do. 

Como,  ko  mo. 

Conception,  kQn-s§p'shun. 
Concord,  konk'urd. 

Connecticut,  kou-net'i-kut. 
Constance,  kon'stgns. 
Constantinople,  kon-stan'ti-no'pl. 
Coosa,  koo'sg. 

Copenhagen,  ko'pgn-hå'ggn. 
Cordova,  kor'do-vå. 

Corfu,  kor-foo'. 

Corinth,  kor'intli. 

Corpus  Christi,  kor'pus  kris'te. 
Corrientes,  kor-ré-én'tés. 

Corsica,  k6r'si-kg. 

Costa  Rica,  kos'ta  ré  kå. 
Cotopaxi,  kd-to-påk'se. 
Covington,  kuv'ing-tgn. 

Cracow,  krå  ko. 

Crefeld,  krå  felt. 

Crevasse,  krå-vås'. 

Croydon,  kroi  dgn. 

Cuba,  ku  bg. 

Culloden,  kul-lo'dgn. 

Cumbrian,  kum'bri-gn. 

Curagao,  ku-rg-s5'. 

Cuzco,  koos  ko. 

Cyprus,  sl'prus. 

Czernowitz,  clier'no-vits. 

Dahomey,  då-lio'må. 

Dakota,  dg-ko'tg. 

Dallas,  dål'gs. 

Damascus,  dg-mås'kus. 

Dantzic,  dant'zik. 

Danube,  dån  ub. 

Dardanelles7  dår-dg-nSlz'. 
Darfur,  dår^foor. 

Darien,  då'rg-Sn. 

Davenport,  dåv'gn-port. 
Debreczin,  då-brét'sin. 

Decatur,  dé-kå'tur. 

Deccan,  dék'kgn. 

Delaware,  dSl'g-wår. 

Delhi,  India,  dél'lé. 

Des  Chutes,  då-shoot'. 

Des  Moines,  dg-moin'. 

Des  Plaines,  då-plån'. 

Detroit,  dg-troitr . 

Dijon,  de-zhoN*. 

Dnieper,  ne'pgr. 

Dniester,  nés  tgr. 

Dominica,  ddm-g-né  kg. 

Donegal,  don-g-gal'. 

Dovrefield,  do-vrg-fy§ld'. 

Drave,  dråv. 


Dresden,  dr6z'dgn. 

Drogheda,  dro'hg-dg. 

Dubuque,  doo-buk'. 

Duluth,  du-looth'. 

Duncansby,  dun'kgns-bT. 
Dundalk,  dun-dak'. 

Dundee,  dun-dé'. 

Dunedin,  dun-éd  in. 

Dungeness,  dun-jg-nSs'. 

Durango,  doo-rån  go. 

Dwina,  dwé  ng. 

Eau  Claire,  d-klår'. 

Ebro,  é bro. 

Echidna,  é-kid'ng. 

Ecuador,  ék-wå-ddr'. 

Edinburgh,  8din-bur-o. 

Egypt,  é jipt. 

Egyptian,  é-jip'shgn. 

Elba,  él'bå. 

Elbe,  Sl'bg. 

Elberfeld,  él'bgr-félt. 

Elbruz,  él-brooz'. 

Elburz,  él-boorz'. 

Eleuthera,  g-lu'thgr-å. 

Elgin,  61'jin. 

Elmira,  el-ml'rg. 

El  Paso,  él  på'sd. 

Elyria,  e-lir  g-g. 

Erne,  em. 

Erris,  Sr'ris. 

Erz,  erts. 

Escanaba,  Ssk-å-na'bg. 
Essequibo,  es-så-ké'bd. 

Etna,  ét'ng. 

Eubæa,  ii-be'g. 

Eucalyptus,  u-kg-lip'tus. 
Euplirates,  u-frå'tez. 

Eurasia,  u-rå'shi-g. 

European,  u-rd-pé'gn. 

Evansville,  év'gnz-vil. 

Everest,  év'gr-ést. 

Eyre,  år. 

Falkland,  fak'lgnd. 

Faribault,  får-e-bo', 

Fezzan.  féz-zan'. 

Fiji,  fé  jé.^ 

Findlay,  find'lå. 

Finland,  fin'lgnd. 

Fiord,  fyord. 

Firtli,  férth. 

Flamborough,  flåm'bur-rd. 

Floe,  flo. 

Florida,  flor'i-dg. 

Fond  du  Lac,  fon-du-låkf. 
Formosa,  f6r-mo'sa. 

Fort  Wayne,  wån. 

Frankfurt,  frank  f Oort. 

Fraser,  frå'zgr. 

Fremont,  fre-mont'. 

Fresno,  fr§s'no. 

Fuegian,  fu-é'ji-gn. 

Fusiyama,  foo-zi-å'må. 

Galapagos,  gå-låp'a-gos. 

Galatz,  gå'låt.s. 

Galilee,  gål  l-lé. 

Galveston,  gål'vgs-ton. 

Galway,  gal'  wå. 

Ganges,  gån  jez. 

Garonne,  gå-ronn'. 

Gasconade,  gås-ko-nåd'. 

Genesee,  jSn-g-sé'. 

Geneva,  jg-ne  vg. 

Genoa,  jSn'g-3. 

Georgia,  jor'ji-g. 

Geral,  hå-rål'. 

Gettysburg,  gSt'lz-bflrg. 

Ghats,  gåts. 

Ghent,  gSnt. 

Gibraltar,  ji-braVtgr. 

Gila,  hé  lå. 

Girardeau,  jé-rår-dd'. 

Gironde,  zhe-roNd'. 

Glasgow,  gliis  gd. 

Gloucester,  glos't^r. 

Gloversville,  gluv'grz-vil. 

Gobi,  go'be. 

Gondar,  g5n'dår. 

Gondola,  gon'dg-lg. 

Gracias  a Dios,  grå'sé-ås-å-dé'os. 


PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


183 


Grampians,  grdm'pi-gnz. 

Granada,  grå-nå'då. 

Gran  Chaco,  gran  chåko. 

Grand  Manan,  mgn-dn'. 

Gråtz,  gr5ts. 

Greenwich,  grénwich  (U.  S.) ; 

grén  ij  (Eng.). 

Grinnell,  grin-él'. 

Guadalajara,  gwå-då-lå-hå'ra. 
Guadalquivir,  gwa-dal-ké-vér' . 
Guadalupe,  ga^g-loop7  (U.  S.)  ; 

gwå-då-loo'på  (Spanish). 
Guanaco,  gwg-nå'ko. 

Guanajuato,  gwå-nå-hwåto. 
Guatei nala,  g wg-tå-må ' la . 
Guayaquil,  gwi-å-kel' . 

Guernsey,  g5rn'zg. 

Guiana,  gé-åna. 

Guinea,  gine. 

Guthrie,  guth'rg. 

Guyandotte,  gl-gn-dot . 

Hagerstown,  hå'ggrz-town. 
Hainan,  hl-nån'. 

Haiti,  ha' ti. 

Hakodate,  liå-ko-dåte. 

Halifax,  hålg-fåks. 

Halle,  hallp. 

Haraite,  ha  mit. 

Hanoi,  nå-no'5. 

Hanover,  hdn'5-vgr. 

Harney,  har  m. 

Hatteras,  hdt'tgr-gs. 

Havana,  hg-vång. 

Havre,  håvgr. 

Havre  de  Grace,  lidv'gr  dg  gras. 
Hawaii,  ha-wl  é. 

Hebrides,  héb  ri-déz. 

Hecla,  héklg. 

Helena,  helg-ng. 

Helgoland,  hél  go-land. 

Henlopen,  hen-15'pgn. 

Herdt,  hgr-åt'. 

Himalaya,  him-ålg-yg. 
Hindu-Kush,  hindoo-koosh. 
Hindustan,  hin-dg-stan'. 
Hoang-Ho,  hg-ang-ho'. 

Hoboken,  ho'bo-kgn. 

Holston,  nol'stgn. 

Holyoke,  hol' y ok. 

Hondo,  hondo. 

Honduras,  hon-dotfrgs. 

Hongkong,  hong-kong'. 

Honolulu,  ho-uo-loo'loo. 

Hoosac,  hoo'sgk. 

Housatonic,  hod-sg-ton 'ie. 
Houston,  hus'tgu. 

Hudson,  hud'sgn. 

Hud,  hoo-å'. 

Huinboldt.  lium'bolt. 

Hungary,  nun'gg-ri. 

Huron,  hu  rgn. 

Iberian.  I-be'rg-gn. 

Idaho,  I dg-lio. 

Illimani,  5l-y5-ma'ne. 

Illinois,  ll-li-noi'  or  -noiz'. 

Inagua,  5-na'gwa. 

India,  in  di-g. 

Indiana,  in-di-an  y. 

Indianapolis,  m-di-aii  ap  g-lis. 
Indes,  in'd§z. 

Indus,  111'dus. 

Innsbruck,  ins'prook. 

Inverness,  m-vgr-ness'. 

Ionian,  i-oni-gn. 

Iowa,  10-wa. 

Iquique,  5-k§'kå. 

Iran,  5-rån' . 

Irkutsk,  ir-kootsk'. 

Ironton,  l'urn-tgn. 

Ishpeming,  ish'pgm-mg. 

Isle  Royale,  51  rwa-yal'. 

Italian,  l-tålygn. 

Itasca,  i-tlis'kg. 

Ithaca,  ith'g-kg. 

Jalapa,  lia-la'på. 

Jamaica,  jg-ma'kg. 

Japan,  jg-pdn'. 

Jassy,  yå'sé. 

Java,  ja'vg. 

Jersey,  jér'zi. 

Joliet,  jo'lg-et. 

Joplin,  j5p'lln. 

Juan  de  Fuca,  lioo-ån'  da  foo'ka. 
Juan  Fernandez,  fer-nan'd5th. 
Juarez,  hwa  rétli. 

Juneau,  ju-110'. 

Jungfrau,  yd&ng'frow. 

Juniata.  ju-m-åt'&. 

Jura,  ju  ra. 

Kåbul,  ka  bul. 

Kadiak,  kad-ydk'. 

Kaffir,  kdf'fgr. 

Kalahari,  kii-la-ha  ri. 


Kama,  ka'ma. 

Kamcliatka,  kam-chat  kg. 
Kamerun,  ka-ma-roon'. 

Kanawha,  kg-na'wg. 

Kankakee,  kån-kg-ke'. 

Kansas,  kan'sgs. 

Kara,  ka  ra. 

Karakorum,  ka-ra-korum. 
Kashgar,  kasli-gar'. 

Kashmir,  kSsh-mer'. 

Kaskaskia,  kas-kas  kl-g. 
Katadahin,  kg-tådin. 

Katoomba,  kå-td6m  bg. 

Kauai,  kow-Ie. 

Kecskemet,  kech-kem-at'. 

Kenia,  kå-ne  a. 

Kennebec,  ken-g-bek'. 

Kentucky,  ken-tiik'1. 

Keokuk,  ke  o-kuk. 

Khaibar,  ka  e-bar. 

Khartum,  kar-toom'. 

Khelat,  kgl-at'. 

K hin-Gan , kin-gan' . 

Khiva,  ké  va. 

Khyber,  ki'bér. 

Kiakhta,  ké-ak'ta. 

Kilauea,  ke-low-a'a. 

Kilima-Njaro,  kil'5-man-ja-ro'. 
Killarney,  kil-ar'm. 

Kilmarnock,  kil-miir  ngk. 

Kiolen,  kyé  lgn. 

Kioto,  ke-o'to. 

Kirghiz,  kir-gez'. 

Kirin,  kir  in. 

Kirkcgldv,  kir-kal'di. 

Kittery,  kit'gr-i. 

Klamatli,  kla'mgth. 

Klausenburg,  klow'zgn-boorg. 
Knoxville,  noks'vil. 

Koala,  ko-å'lå. 

Kong,  kong. 

Kongo,  kon'go. 

Kbnigsberg,  ké%iigs-berg. 

Koran,  ko  rgn. 

Kordofan,  kor-do-fån'. 

Korea,  ko-re'g. 

Kronstadt,  kron'stat. 

Kuen-Lun,  kwen-loou'. 

Labrador,  låb-rg-dor'. 

Lachine,  la-shén'. 

Lacrosse,  lg-kros'. 

Ladoga,  ldd'5-gg. 

Ladrones,  lg-dronz'. 

Lafayette,  lå-f  å-et' . 

Lagoon,  la-goon'. 

La  Guayra,  lå-gwlrå. 

Lamoille,  lg-moil'. 

Lancaster,  lånk'gs-tgr. 

Landes,  l&Nd. 

Lansing,  ldn'srag. 

La  Paz,  la-path'. 

Lapland,  ldp'lgnd. 

La  Plata,  la-pla/tii. 

Laporte,  lg-port'. 

Laramie,  lar'g-m5. 

Laredo,  lg-ra'do. 

Lasalle,  lg-sal'. 

Lassa,  las'sa. 

Lassen,  13s'sgn. 

Las  Vegas,  las-va'^as. 

Laurentian,  la-ren  shg-gn. 
Lausanne,  lo-zan ' . 

Leadville,  I5d'vil. 

Leavenwoi-th,  lév'gn-wgrth. 
Lebanon,  lSb  g-UQn. 

Legliorn,  l5g'horn. 

Leicester,  I5s'tgr, 

Leipsic,  lip'sik. 

Lei th,  létli. 

Lemberg,  lém'berg. 

Lena,  le  ng. 

Leon,  la-011'  (Sp.). 

Leone,  le-o  ne. 

Lexington,  lek'sing-tgn. 

Liberia,  11-be'ri-g. 

Libyan,  l!b'g-gn. 

Liége,  15-azh'. 

Lille,  lei. 

Lima,  ll  mg  (U.  S.) ; le'ma  (Peru). 
Limerick,  lim  er-ik. 

Limoges,  lé-mozh'. 

Lipari,  lip'g-re. 

Lisbon,  liz'bgn. 

Lisbura,  lis  bflrn. 

Liverpool,  liv'gr-pool. 

Llano  Estacado,  lya  no-es-tii-ka'- 
do. 

Loanda,  lo-an'da. 

Loch,  lok. 

Loess,  lés. 

Lofoden,  lo-fo'dgn. 

Logan,  loggn. 

Loire,  lwar. 

Lombok,  lom-b5k'. 

Londonderry,  lun'dun-dSr-L 
Los  Angeles,  los-an'g5l-5s. 


Lough  Neagh,  lbh  na'. 

Louisiaua,  loo-e-zé-a  ng. 

Louis  ville,  loo'is-  or  loo  i-vil. 
Lourenco  Marques,  lo-rén'so  miir- 
k5s'. 

Lucerne,  loo-s6rn'. 

Luray,  lu-ra'. 

Lurgan,  l(ir'ggn. 

Luxemburg,  luks'em-bfirg. 

Luzon,  loo-zon'. 

Lyons,  ll'onz. 

Macao,  mii-kow'. 

Macassar,  mg-kås'sgr. 

Mackenzie,  mg-ken'zi. 

Mackinac,  niak  i-na. 

Macon,  makun. 

Madagascar,  måd-g-g5s'kgr. 
Madeira,  mg-dé'rg. 

Madras,  mg-dras'. 

Madrid,  måd'rid  (U.  S.) ; mg-drid' 
(Spain). 

Maelstrom,  maTstrem. 

Magdalena,  mag-da-la'na. 
Magdeburg,  mag'dg-b(56rg. 
Magellan,  mg-jélgn. 

Maine,  man. 

Malacca,  mg-ljik'g. 

Malay,  mg-lay ' . 

Malaysia,  mg-la'shi-g. 

Malden,  mol  dgu. 

Malheur,  mal-liér' . 

Managua,  ma-na'gwa. 

Manchester,  m3,n'chgs-tgr. 
Manchuria,  man-choo  rg-g. 
Mandalay,  man'da-la. 

Manilla,  mg-nil'lg. 

Manistee,  mgn-is-té'. 

Manitoba,  mån-i-to-ba'. 

Manitou,  m&n'g-too. 

Manitoulin,  mån-g-too  lin. 
Manzanillo,  man-thå-nel  yo. 
Maori,  må'o-re. 

Maracaibo,  ma-ra-ki'bo. 

Marafion,  ma-ran'yon. 

Marathon,  mS,r'g-th5n. 

Marcy,  mår' si. 

Marias,  mg-rl'gz. 

Marmora,  mår  mg-rg. 

Marseilles,  mar-sSlz' . 

Martinique,  mar-ti-n§k'. 
Mashonaland,  mg-sho'ng-lånd. 
Maskat,  m3s-kat'. 

Massachusetts,  mas-g-chu'sgts. 
Massaua,  mas-sow'a. 

Massillon,  mSs  il-gn. 

Matabeleland , mSt-g-bel  lknd . 
Matagorda,  måt-g-gor'dg. 
Matamoros,  måt-g-mo'rgs. 
Matapan,  ma-ta-pån'  (Gr.). 

Mauch  Chunk,  mak-chunk'. 

Maui,  mow  e. 

Maulmain,  mal-mln'. 

Mauna  Kea,  mow'na-ka'a. 

Mauna  Loa,  -lo'a. 

Mauritius,  ma-rlsh'i-us. 

Mazatlan,  ma-sat-lan'. 
Mediterranean,  m5d'i-tgr-ra'ng-gn. 
Mekong,  ma-kong'. 

Melanesia,  mél-gn-5'shi-g. 
Melbourne,  mél'bfirn. 
Mempliremagog,  mem-frg-ma'gog. 
Memphis,  m5m'fis. 

Menai,  mén  l. 

Mendocino,  mSn-do-seSio. 
Menomonee,  mg-nom'q-ne. 
Meramec,  m5r'g-mek. 

Mei-ida,  m5r'i-dg. 

Meriden,  m5r  i-d5n. 

Merrimac,  m5r  l-mgk. 

Mersey,  m8r'zi. 

Merthyr-Tydfil,  mSi*-thgr-tid'fil. 
Messina,  m5s-se'na. 

Metz,  niSts. 

Mexico,  m6ks'i-ko. 

Miami,  ml-am'l. 

Michigan,  mlsh'i-ggn. 

Micronesia,  mI-kro-n5'shi-g. 

Milan,  mil  gn  or  mi-lltn' . 

Mille  Lacs,  mél-låk'. 

Milo,  me  lo  (Greeceb 
Milwaukee,  mil-wa  ke. 

Minch,  minch. 

Mindando,  men-da-na'o. 
Minneapolis,  min-g-dp'o-lis. 
Minnehalla,  min-g-hiidia. 
Minnesota,  min-g-so'tg. 
Mississippi,  mis-is-ip  i. 

Missoula,  m!z-6o'lg. 

Missouri,  mis-00'ri. 

Mitylene,  mit-5-le'ne. 

Mobile,  mo-bel'. 

Mohammed,  mo-hS.m'm5d. 
Mohave,  mo-ha'va. 

Mohawk,  mo 'bak. 

Molokai,  mo-li>-kl'. 

Moluccas,  mo-luk'kgz. 


Mombaza,  m5m-bas'g. 

Monaco,  mon'a-ko. 

Monastir,  mbn-gs-ter'. 

Moncton,  munk'tgn. 

Mongolia,  mon-go'li-g. 
Monongaliela,  mo-non-gg-hé'lg. 
Monrovia,  mbn-ro'vi-g. 

Montana,  mon-ta'11^. 

Montauk,  mon-tak'. 

Mont  Blanc,  moN  bloN'  or  niount 
bldnk. 

Mont  Cenis,  moN'  sg-ne'  or  mount. 
Montenegro,  mon-ta-na'gro. 
Monterey,  mon-tg-ra'. 

Montevideo,  mon-te-vid'5-o. 
Montgomery,  mgnt-gum'gr-i. 
Monticello,  mon-te-sel  lo. 
Montpelier,  mont-p§'li-gr. 
Montreal,  mont-rg-al'. 

Moraine,  mo-rlin'. 

Mora  via,  1110-ra'vi-g. 

Moray,  mura. 

Morelia,  mo-ra'15-g. 

Morocco,  mb-rok'o. 

Moscow,  mos'ko. 

Mount  Diablo,  dé-a'blo. 

Mount  Lyell,  II '51. 

Mount  St.  Eliiis,  g-ll'gs. 

Mount  Tyndail,  tin'dgl. 
Mozambique,  mo-zgm-bék'. 
Mukden,  mook-den'. 

Mull,  mul. 

Munich,  mu  nik. 

Murray,  mur' ra. 

Muskatine,  mus-kg-ten  . 
Muskegon,  mus-ké  ggn. 

Namur,  na'mur. 

Nan-Ling,  nan'l!ng. 

Nantes,  ndnts. 

Nanticoke,  ndn'ti-cok. 

Nantucket,  ndn-tuk'gt. 

Naples,  na'plz. 

Narragansett,  nar-rg-gån'sgt. 
Nashua,  nash'u-g. 

Nassau,  nas  a. 

Natcliez,  nd  chgz. 

Navajo,  na  va-ho. 

Naxos,  nak'sos. 

Nebraska,  ng-bras'kg. 

Neclies,  n5ch'5z. 

Negritos,  né-grl  toz. 

Nepal,  na-pal'. 

Netherlands,  neth'gr-lgndz. 

Neuse,  nus. 

Nevada,  ng-va'dg. 

Newark,  nu'grk. 

Newfoundland , nu  fond-lgnd. 

New  Hampshire,  -lidmp  shir. 

New  Orleans,  -or'lg-gnz. 

Newport,  nu'port. 

New  Zealand,  -z5'lgnd. 

Niagara,  nl-dg'g-rg. 

Nicaragua,  n5-ka-ra'gwa. 

Nice,  nes. 

Niger,  in  jgr. 

Nimes,  nem. 

Ningpo,  ning-po'. 

Niobrara,  nI-5-bra'rg. 

Nipigon,  nip  i-gon. 

Norfolk,  nor'fgk. 

Noirfstown,  nor  is-town. 
Norseman,  n6rs'mgn. 

Norwegian,  n5r-we'ji-an. 

Norwich,  nor'wich  (U.  S.),  nor'rij 
(Eng.). 

Nottingham,  not  ing-gm. 

Nova  Scotia,  110'vg  sko'slii-g. 

Nova  Zembla,  no'vg  zém'blg. 
Nubia,  nu'bi-g. 

Nueces,  nwa's5s. 

Nuremberg,  nu  rem-berg. 

Nyanza,  nl-an'zg. 

Nyassa,  ne-as'sa. 

Oahu,  o-a'hoo. 

Oakland,  ok'lgnd. 

Oasis,  o'a-sis. 

Oaxaca,  wa-ha'kii. 

Obi,  o'b§. 

Ocmulgee,  ok-mrd'ge. 

Oder,  o'dgr. 

Odessa,  o-d5s'sg. 

Ogden,  og'd5n. 

Ogeechee,  o-ge'che. 

Okanagan,  o-kdn'g-ggn. 
Okecliobee,  o-ke-cho  be. 
Okefinokee,  o-ke-fi-no'ke. 
Okliotsk,  o-kotsk'. 

Oklolioma,  ok-lii-ho'mg. 

Oldham,  old'gm. 

Olympia,  o-lim'pI-g. 

Olympus,  o-lim'pus. 

Omaha,  5'mg-hg. 

Oman,  o-mau'. 

Omsk,  omsk. 

Ouega,  0-ne'gg. 


Oneida,  5-nl'dg. 

Ontario,  5n-ta'ri-o. 

Oregon,  or  g-gon. 

Orinoco,  o-ri-no  ko. 

Orizaba,  o-re-tha  ba. 

Orkney,  ork  ne. 

Orleans,  or-la-oNs'  (Fr.). 
Ornithorynchus,  61-ni-tho-iin ' k us . 
Osage,  o-såj'. 

Oshkosh,  osli  kosh. 

Oswego,  os-we'^o. 

Otranto,  o-tran  to. 

Ottawa,  ot'tg-wg. 

Ottumwa,  ot-tum'wg. 

Ouachita,  wosh'i-ta. 

Ouse,  ooz. 

Owyhee,  o-wl'he. 

Ozark,  o-zark'. 

Pacaraima,  pa-ka-rl'ma. 

Pacliuca,  pa-choo'ka. 

Pacific,  pg-sif  ik. 

Paducah,  j»g-du  kg. 

Pagan,  på  ggn. 

Pago,  på  go. 

Pagoda,  pa-^o'då. 

Paisley,  paz  li. 

Palambang,  på-lem-biing’. 
Palenno,  pg-16r'mo. 

Palestine,  pål'gs-tln. 

Pamir,  på-mer'. 

Pamlico,  påm'li-ko. 

Pampas,  påm'pås. 

Panama,  pån-g-må'. 

Papua,  påp'oo-g. 

Pard,  på-rå'. 

Paraguay,  på-rå-gwl'. 

Paramaribo,  pår-g-mår  i-bo. 
Parana,  på-rå-na'. 

Paris,  pdr'is. 

Parma,  par' mg. 

Pai-see,  par'se. 

Parthenon,  pår  the-non. 
Pascagoula,  pås-kg-goo'lg. 

Passaic,  pds-så  ik. 
Passamaquoddy,  pås-g-mg-kwod  1. 
Patagonia,  p&t-g-go  ni-g. 

Paterson,  påt  gr-sgn. 

Patras,  på-trås'. 

Pawtucket,  pa-tuk'gt. 

Pecos,  på  kos. 

Pedee,  pe-dé'. 

Peking,  pé-king'. 

Pe-Iång,  p5-l!ng'. 

Pennine,  pgn  nln. 

Pennsylvania,  pen-sil-vå'nl-g. 
Peuobscot,  pg-nob'scgt. 

Pensacola,  pén-sg-ko  lg. 

Pentland,  pent  lgnd. 

Peoria,  pe-o  ri-g. 

Pepin,  pé  pin. 

Pernambuco,  p8r-nåm-boo'ko. 
Persia,  pér  shi-g. 

Perth,  pSrth. 

Peru,  pg-rod'. 

Plienix,  fé  niks. 

Philadelphia,  fil-g-dél  fi-g. 

Philae,  fl'15. 

Philippine,  fiTip-in. 

Philippopolis,  fil-ip-op'o-lis. 
Piedmont,  péd  mout. 

Pierre,  per. 

Pietepuaritzburg,  pé-tgr-mår  its 
biirg. 

Pike,  plk. 

Pilcomayo,  pil-ko-ml'o. 

Pilsen,  pil  sgn. 

Pindus,  pin  dus. 

Pinos,  pé  nos. 

Piraeus,  pl-re'us. 

Pittsburg,  plts  bfirg. 

Platte,  plåt. 

Platten  See,  pla'tgn  zå'. 
Plymouth,  plim'uth. 

Pnompenh,  p^om-pen'. 

Polyp,  p51'ip. 

Pomoua,  po-mo'ng. 

Pompeii,  pom-pa  ye. 

Pontchartrai  n , pon t-clig  r-t,rån' . 
Popocatepetl,  po-po'  k åt-å-på-tl . 
Port  au  Prince,  port-o-prhis'. 

Port  Said,  -sa-Sd'. 

Portsmouth,  ports  inuth. 
Portugal,  por  tu-ggl. 

Portuguese,  por'tu-gez. 

Potomac,  po-to  mgk. 

Potosi,  po-to'sI. 

Poughkeepsie,  py-kip'si. 

Prague,  pråg. 

Pressburg,  pres'boorg. 

Pretoria,  pré-tor'5-g. 

Pribilof,  pre-bé-lov'. 

Providence,  prov'1-dgns. 

Prussia,  priish'yg. 

Prutli,  prootli. 

Ptarmigan,  tår'mi-ggn. 

Puebla,  pwéb  lii. 


184 


PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


Pueblo,  pwSb'15. 

Puerto  Rico,  pwer'to  re'ko. 
Puget,  pu  j§t. 

Puuo,  poo'no. 

Pyrenees,  pir'e-néz. 

Quagga,  kwåg'ga. 

Quebec,  kwe-bek  . 

Querétaro,  ka-ra  ta-ro. 

Quincy,  kwin'zi. 

Quito,  ke'to. 

Racine,  ra-sén'. 

Raiuier,  rå'ner. 

Raleigh,  ra' ly. 

Rangun,  rån-go5n'. 
Rappalianuock,  råp-3-liau'yk. 
Ravenua,  ra-yen'a. 

Reading,  rSd  ing. 

Rennes,  renn. 

Rheiins,  rémz. 

Rhine,  rlu. 

Rlione,  ron. 

Riga,  rl'ga  (U.  S.) ; ré'ga  (Rus.). 
Rio  Grande,  re'o  gran' da. 

Rio  Janeiro,  -zhå-nå'é-ro. 

Rio  Negro,  -na  gro. 

Rio  Virgen,  -vérhen. 

Roanoke,  ro-3-nok'. 

Roclielle,  rp-shfil'. 

Rochester,  roch'es-ter. 

Romano,  ro-ina  no. 

Ronianzof,  ro-man  tsof. 

Rosario,  rd-sii  ré-o. 

Rotterdam,  rot'er-dåm. 

Roubaix,  roo'ba'. 

Rouen,  roo'oN'. 

Roumelia,  rdd-mé'le-3. 
Roumania,  rod-må'lii-3. 

RiLssia,  rush' 3. 

R ustell  uk,  roost-cliook'. 

Saco,  s«^'ko. 

Sacramento,  såk-r3-m§n'to. 
Saginaw,  såg'i-na. 

►Sahara,  sa-hå  rg. 

Saigon,  sa  é-gon. 

Saint  Albans,  sant  aTbgnz. 

Saint  Augustine,  -agfis-ten. 
Saint  Bernard,  -bSr-nard'. 

Saint  Clair,  -klår'. 

Saint  Croix,  -kroi'. 

Saint  Gothard,  -go-tård'. 

Saint  Helena,  sent  he-lén3. 

Saint  Lawrence,  sånt  la' rens. 
Saint  Louis,  -loo'is  or  -loo  1. 

Saint  Petersburg,  -pé  terz-burg. 
Saint  Roque,  -rok. 

Saint  Sophia,  -so-fé'å. 

Sakhalin,  sa-kliå-lén'. 

Salem,  så'lem. 

Salford,  salfyrd. 

Salinas,  s^i-lé  nas. 

Salisbury,  salz'ber-i. 

Salonika,  sa-lo-ne'ka. 

Saltillo,  sal-tel'yo. 

Salvador,  sal-vå-dor'.  • 


Salzburg,  salts'boorg. 

Samarkand,  såm-^r-kåud'. 

Samoa,  så-mo  å. 

San  Antonio,  san  ån-to'ni-o. 

San  Bernardino,  -bér-når-dé  no. 
San  Cristobal,  -krés-to'bål. 
Sandhurst,  sånd'hurst. 

San  Diego,  sån  dé-å'go. 

Sandusky,  sån-dus'ki. 

San  Francisco,  -från-sis'ko. 
Sangamon,  sån'g3-mon. 

Sangay,  sån-gl'. 

Sangre  de  Cristo,  sån'grå  da  krés'- 
to. 

San  Joaquin,  sånlio-å-kén'. 

San  José,  -ho-så'. 

San  Juan,  -hod-ån'. 

Sau  Lucas,  -loo  kjjs. 

San  Luis,  -loo-és'. 

San  Marino,  -må-ré'no. 

San  Pablo,  -påblo. 

Santa  Barbara,  sån'  ta-bår'  b^-r^ . 
Santa  Fé,  -få. 

Santee,  sån'té'. 

Santiago,  san-té-å'go. 

Santo  Domingo,  santo  do-mén'go.  ( 
Saone,  son. 

Saratoga,  sår-3-to'ffa. 

Sarawak,  sa-ra-wåk'. 

Sardinia,  sår-dm  1-3. 

Sark,  sårk. 

Saskatchewan,  sås-kåcli'e-wan. 
Sault  Sainte  Marie,  soo  sSnt  mårf. 
Savaii,  sa- vi' 6. 

Savannah,  S3-vån'3. 

Save,  såv. 

Scandanavia,  skån-di-na'vi-3. 
Schenectady,  ske-nek'ta-dS. 
Schwarzwald,  shvårtz'vålt. 

Scilly,  sil'i. 

Scotland,  skot  land. 

Scranton,  skråntyn. 

Seattle,  sé-åt'l. 

Sedalia,  se-då'li-3. 

Seine,  san. 

Seminole,  sSm'i-nol. 

Semite,  sem'it. 

Semitic,  sém-it'ic. 

Seneca,  sén'e-kg. 

Senegal,  sen-e-gal'. 

Senegambia,  sen-e-gåm'bi-3. 

Seoul,  så-odl'. 

Serra  do  Mar,  sår'ra-do-mår\ 

Ser  via,  sér'vi-3. 

Severn,  sSv'ern. 

Se  vier,  sy-ver'. 

Shamokin,  shft-mokin. 

Shanghai,  shång-liå  i. 

Sliannon,  shån'yn. 

Sliasta,  shås't3. 

Sheboygan,  sliy-boi  gan. 

Sheffield,  shgfféld. 

Shenandoah,  slign-åu-do'3. 
Shetland,  slietJand. 

Shoshone,  slio-sho'né. 

Slireveport,  slirévport. 

Siam,  sl-åm'. 


Siberia,  sl-bé' 1*1-3. 

Sicily,  sis'!-li. 

Sierra  Madre,  se-Sr'3-må'drå. 
Singapore,  sin-ga-por'. 

Sioux,  soo. 

Sitka,  sit'ka. 

Sligo,  sll'go. 

Smyrna,  smér'113. 

Snowdon,  sno' don. 

Sofia,  so-fé'å. 

Sogne,  son. 

Sokoto,  so-ko-to'. 

Solway,  sol'wa. 

Somali,  so-male. 

Somerville,  sum'yr-vil. 
Souris,  soo-re'. 

Spartivento,  spår-te-veu'to. 
Spokane,  spo-kån'. 

Stabiae,  ståbi-é. 

Staffa,  ståf'3. 

Stanovoi,  stå-110-voi'. 

Stettin,  stgt-tén'. 

Steuben  ville,  stu'ben-vil. 
Stirling,  st8r'ling. 

Stockliohn,  stokholm. 
Strangford,  strång'fyrd. 
Strasburg,  stråzburg. 
Streator,  stré'tyr. 

Stuttgart,  sto6t'gårt. 

Suakin,  swå'kin. 

Sucre,  soo' krg. 

Sudan,  soo-dåu'. 

Sudanese,  soo-dan-éz'. 

Suez,  soo-éz'. 

Suisun,  soo-é-soon'. 

Suliman,  s66-lé-måir. 
Sumatra,  s6o-må'trå. 

Sunda,  sun'da. 

Simderland,  sun'der-land. 
Susquehaima,  sus-kwe-liån'3. 
Suwannee,  su-wa'ne. 

Swansea,  swon  sé. 

Sweden,  swe  dyn. 
Switzerland,  sw!t'zer-land. 
Sydney,  sid  rn. 

Syra,  sé'rå. 

Syracuse,  sir'a-kus. 

Syria,  sir'i-a. 

Szegedin,  seg-ed-en'. 

Tabriz,  ta-brez'. 

Tacoma,  tå-ko'må. 

Tagus,  tå  gus. 

Talioe,  tå-ho'. 

Tahlequali,  tå'lé-kwå. 
Tallaliassee,  tål-3-hås'é. 
Tampa,  tåm  pa. 

Tampico,  tåm-pe'ko. 
Tananarivo,  tå-nå'nå-re-vo. 
Tanganyika,  tån-gån-yé'kå. 
Taranto,  ta'rån-to. 

Tarim,  tå-rém'. 

Tarso,  tår'so. 

Taslikent,  tash-kSnt'. 
Tasmania,  tåz-må' 111-3. 
Taunton,  tån'ton. 

Taurus,  t<i'rus. 


Tegucigalpa,  tå-goo-se-gårpå. 
Teheran,  ty-hran'. 

T ehuantepec , tå- wån-tå-pek ' . 
Temesvar,  tém-Ssh-vår'. 
Teimessee,  tgu-nys-sé'. 

Terre  Haute,  tgr-y-hot'. 

Texas,  teks  as. 

Thames,  thåmz  (U.  S.) ; tSmz 
(Eng.), 
llieiss,  tls. 

Thian-Slian,  té-an/shan. 

Tiber,  ti  byr. 

Tibet,  ti-bét'  or  tib'ét. 

Tibetan,  tib'é-t^n. 

Tien-tsin,  té-en  tsen. 

Tierra  del  Fuego,  té-er'rå-del- 
fwå'go. 

Tiflis,  tif-lés'. 

Tigris,  tl'gris. 

Timbuktu,  tini-bo6k'too. 

Timor,  té-mor'. 

Titicaca,  tit-é-kil  kli. 

Tocantins,  to-kån-téns'. 

Tokyo,  td  kii-o. 

Toledo,  to-lé'do. 

Tolima,  to-lé'ma. 

Tombigbee,  tom-big'bé. 

Tonga,  ton'ga. 

Topeka,  to-pe'ka. 

Toronto,  to-ron'to. 

Torrens,  tor'r6nz. 

Toulon,  too'loN. 

Toulouse,  too  looz'. 

Travei*se,  tråv 'em. 

Triest,  tré-Sst'. 

Tri  nidad , trin ' i-dåd'. 

Tripoli,  trip'y-li. 

Tsetse,  tsét'sé. 

Tucsou,  tu-son'. 

Tulere,  too-lå're. 

Tunis,  tu'n!s. 

Turin,  tu'rin. 

Turkestan,  toor-kis-tån'. 

Ucayale,  00-kI-å'lå. 

Uinta,  u-111'ta. 

Ujiji,  00-jé'je. 

Upolu,  oo-po-loo'. 

Ural,  u'rål. 

Uruguay,  oo-roo-gwl'. 

Uspallata,  oos-pål-yå'ta. 

Utah,  u'tå  or  u'ta. 

Utica,  u'ti-ka. 

Valdai,  vål'dl. 

Valencia,  va-len'shi-5}. 

Valparaiso,  vål-på-rl'so. 
Vancouver,  vån-koo'ver. 

Vega,  vé'ga. 

Venezuela,  ven-y-zwe  I3. 

Venice,  ven'is. 

Vera  Cruz,  vå'rå  kioos'. 

Verde,  v8rd. 

Verdigris,  v8r'di-gi*és. 

Vermilion,  ver-mil'yun. 

Vennont,  vyr-mout . 

Verona,  vfi-ro'na. 


Vesuvius,  ve-su'vl-us. 
Verkoyansk,  vér-ko-yånsk'. 
Vienna,  vl-gn'3  (U.  S.) ; ve-en'3 
(Austria). 

Vincennes,  vin-seuz'. 

Virginia,  vei^jm'1-3. 

Vistula,  vis  tu-Lj. 

Viti  Levu,  vé  té  lå'vod. 
Vladivostok,  vlii-dé-vos-tok' . 
Volga,  vol'gå. 

Vosges,  vozh. 

Wabash,  wa'bash. 

Wacliusett,  wa-chu  syt. 

Waco,  wå  ko. 

Wadai,  wå'di. 

Wales,  wålz. 

Warsaw,  war'sa. 

Wtisatch,  wa'såch. 

Waterloo,  wa-tyr-loo'. 

W elland , wSl' and. 

Wellington,  wel'ing-tyn. 

Wener,  vå'ner. 

W estminster,  west'min-ster . 
Wetter,  vet  ter. 

Wheeling,  hwél  ing. 

Wicliita,  wich'i-ta.  f 
Wilkesbarre,  \vilks'båi*-l. 
Willamette,  ml-å'met. 
Wilmington,  wil'ming-tQn. 
Winnebago,  whi-é-bå  go. 
Wimiemucca,  win-é-muk'a. 
Winnepesaukee,  wm-é-pe-sa'ké. 
Winuepeg,  win'1-pég. 
Winnijiegosis,  wm-i-pe-go'sis. 
Winona,  wi-no'na. 

Wiuooski,  wi-noos'kI. 

Wisconsin,  wis-koi^sin. 
Woonsocket,  wooii-sok^t. 
Worcester,  woos'ter. 

Wyoming,  wl-o  ining. 

Yablonoi,  yå-blo-noi'. 

Yadkin,  yåd  kin. 

Yakima,  yåk  i-må. 

Yakutsk,  yå-kootsk'. 

Yang-tse,  yång'tsé. 

Y arkaud , yår-kånd' . 

Yazoo,  yå-zoo'. 

Yenesei,  yen-é-så'é. 

Yesso,  yes'so. 

Yokoliama,  yo-ko-hå'må. 
Yonkers,  yonk'ers. 

Yosemite,  yo-sem'!-te. 

Yucatan,  yoo-kå-tiin'. 

Yukon,  yoo'kbn. 

Yuma,  yoo'må. 

Zacatecas,  zåk-3-tå'kas. 

Zambezi,  zam-bå'ze. 

Zambezia,  zåm-be'zé-a. 

Zanes ville,  zånz'vil. 

Zante,  zan'ta. 

Zanzibar,  zan'zi-bår. 

Zululand,  zoo'loo-land. 

Zurich,  tsu  iik. 

Zuyder  Zee,  zoi'dyr  zå'. 


%'<rBerlna> Sta'. 


ARTHUR 


Laneanef 


Franklin 


Ij^-ASKA1 


KlCronh 


'Heath] 


.Wolaten] 


C.SouthcufP"” 


Forth  Lintd 


. Lake  / 
ol  last  on 
leindeer 


Indian 

r 


Winnipeg 
\ L.Seul 


tfipigOHj 


Sioux 


cimore 


SvTcw' 

7^SaiViv«nI 

jL**»’' 


Austii 


Ew  OrleanR 


Ce*eos  1.4  (f  A 

3'Legen/a 


'Galveston 


lihuahua 


'orpus  Christi 


f<£  SasSau^y  S L * 


AI-IJOS 


utamoros 


.•Duraj 


Mazatlaii 


mpico 


Guadt 

C.CorrientesC 


XORTII 

AMERICA 


REv'llag]^ 
0 ISLANOSj 


** 

jAMiio 


SV  era  Cruz 


Manzanillo" 


Zoeatul 


Acapuli 


«gCALE  OF  MILE8 


Comparative  Area 


PENN8YLVANIA 


THE  WHOLE  RECTANCLE  CO 
100,000  8Q.  MILES 


Greenwich 


Lonjritude 


Bradley  $ llxitca,  J£ngr'$,  Jf  Jf. 


E Longitude  102 


L.Manitoba 


MinM  W,,kan  (ir&fU 


JU0lTn 


BISMÅRCK 


.Ilickinson 

i 





'SS^u 


/f,  • } “ee<Ues f' 

'<§voi*»«i  fuL 

r 


'castle 


k yfmE^qgtoa 

* 

S"gWHe  / 


«>»  /,  ^«V 

San  Francisco/ 


[oektOa,.  «r  v*. 


lIoldre<lg:e>-^-^' 


:s,enRA 


Las  Aniin; 


liutchinsou 


Dodge-City 


''Q  FeaÅ 
fthéown 


Los  Ange1 
****** 

**£ 


iquerqne 


vr^p^vTAj 


■Turnbi/ttr 


Clt**/ 


y'i,ataÅr 


Wales 


AUST] 


Nulafco 


San  Antohu 


Ya"’v& 

r ^ancouuer, 


'lliamnå  Pei 


'o  / Corpus 
\Laredo 


'//é,"F0G' 

0*»TR»N,'rf  *T 
.chiri*of  \ 


•GEORGE 


Ma  ta  moroa 


ALASKA 


Longitude 


SOUTH 


Longitude*^  1QQ  West from 150  Greenwich 


AMERICA 


lg. " ■'  ■' ' ■ * i — - i _i 1 ; j i j_i 1 LLJJ 

C from  92  H Greenwich  87  I 82j  77  K 72  L 67  M 


V/-  fc 

Katc»nc* 


UNITED 


STATES 


IPEG 


8CALE  OF  MILES 


V-  ■ 

’yigt°'r^Ks 


lokaton 


linerd.  | 
]MiIlé  i 

, LacK*f 


rérgu3 


Mpenai 


inJIeno  mlpKff. 

Wausa.ii 
gte^ns  TKav/ 

Pt^  X 7 


uiclaifg- 


^Tinona 


Albert  Lea] 


Mason  C*t; 


ABIEOS  UÆ3 
Jam' -ville*  K(.nUuha, 

liock  fjott 
.Klpfl 


5ubuque*^^.’retii0  r< 


, y y 

u»f  ri  \ lV-u 

e ^ieWarfc^;  Aa°' 

>T 

v \n 


%ortwW"<i 


• M.v.V» 


Cresto  n 


y*  ^ulvoif 

fesil 

fAPOLlW^rn 


Cinci 
wSe'VpQr% 
Vj,0rwm°u‘ 


^C^vingtl 


^.sbor&^^Wty^ 


o"4'"  A .,£] 

)Fayett«»vflW| 


lV?Mh'ne*OnT 


'injtT» 


UHi**  NAJSBVItJ»  , Murfrsrg” 

T i-  i1-  -Wow>"l< 

rAison  L Colfir&m  


jrekn 

irings 


Wto'0?10” 


L yempH-'»  \ 

“*7^CxiorinUi 

^ i: « u>?"s 

i \ r*, — - , * 

\ \^Grenada( 


ort  Smith 


>Hoi  Øgw**» 


Lgen 


A rluufefph  i 


oArmstfontr 


T*ati9\^— 

Tejtarcann, 


ILmhatn 


ireeir 


„ ,.!»><  \.lUU»l 


■sifi 

VjACKSON 


Jefferson 
- !>  !*•  r 


Sa(il/a\ 


[BrunsWl< 


*alestine 


.Fertil' 

acksonv 


Alexandi 


Llatka 


le  an 3 


New  Ibériat»,, 


ITouhI 


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i Delta  of  the 

muttstppt  R- 


W Matayorda 

f Ttru el 


TamPa 


i Chruti  Bay 


NEW  PROVfOEf 


«ioros1; 


tortug** 


- 


G West  92 


H from  87 


| Greenwich 


J 


77 


K 


• Lyons  -a  _Q  Roma»  Madrid»  S O Tunis»  oibmlt°ar  8 “O  Cai,0g  ® Tenerife* 


Hakodate  ® fe  — *-*  fe  CD  & CL_  Minneapolis  •''fe  O ® Kurile  Is. 


D from  70  Greenwichv  / £ 


B Longitude 


West  71 


.Grand 


Winthropl 


Caribou 


QUEBC 


, Portngpi 


BHttøe  rater 


vLp  OFMEXrcJ 


irthabaskayillc 


■■ ancts 


Haynesvilleb 

Dan  f, 


rllyarhil 


'tja ntn 


nnkeag 


ItOWJP 


AtkinsonS 


>ldtown 


Irono 


An  son 


/oCar 

'Pittsfield 


jwock' 

Fair, 

aterv; 


Fannirigtonj 


ifcer  lort  1 

fknkfori 


U^rClinton 
Win  slow 
( [Is  China  I 


lcksport' 
’Qrland  , 
iport 


[Andover 


Wilton* 


t ePb  ury 


Lincoln  ville 

•L^PoJ 


Chelset 


[ner 


-/Mechani 


loi  mdi 
rlsjton 

Rlchmo 


MAUT 


thbay«Har$or 


,FIanovpr 


X)ssipe< 


1’ai'xons 

field  vt 


ICanaan 


tristol. 


Kearsdrgn  I 
Boscawen, 


fenBebunk 

Kennebunkport 

rick 


V export' 

sCIÉarlestowi  ^ 
l . He  mikeMC 

if  J Hillsb  »ro 

rwaiPoir  1», 


rj  S°mora*0nR 
NtJORD  SaimofjnA 
wAllenstown  ]/  s 
'embroke  Dbvt 
5 Newmarjr^s 


Bellows1 
A Falls 


?R»tery 

^'f1‘\Kca  taqua  R. 


)rtsmonth 


OJISLES  OF  SHOALS 


/Hampton 

fabrook 

iwburyportf 


NEW  ENGLAND 
STATES 


fr°y  r 

Peppcrel 

Xtchburg. 


William; 


mcester- 


Dfcerfieb 


[É^^rMarblehead 
& ^Massach  usetts 
I0ST0N  Bay 


8CALE  OF  MILES 


j.r.-ar 

(Burnnj 


Hudson' 


«aTtoer^sSouihbriflffe  ' 


BOSTON 

AND  VICINITY 


cetown 


'urnet  Pt.^& 


’ akefielc 


0VIDEN( 


finohestcr , 
Malden 
[edford  -"i 


'hat  hum 


Lincoln 


Broad 


‘ortland  .JA 

^ Norwlch] 

\ Ne  w I 
NLondonS 


Moriomoy  Pt. 


Hinthrop 
SlKinf  Arop 
f Head 
^EER  I. 


^nford 

a s°' 

Greeny 


BLOCK 


* Mon  tau  k Pt. 


Jjctlon  '*'T 
’ ^ W.Qulncjr 

/ T < 


B Longitude  72 


E Greenwich  CD 


West 


lirwiUy  $ l\>aUt,  Engr'a,.y.  Y. 


^enfie^JÅx^Z-ViA 

T\^  _ 

jufeUr]  ■ 

l^ibodbs raSS* 

'"'•n  alem 

Longitude  79 


West 


Greenwich 


House] 


MI  I)I)L F,  ATLANTIC 
STATES 


P 

L.Rideav 

\ vy 


I Potsdam 
X St.Regi» 


8CALE  OF  MILES 


ytwto«tc 

*resa 


Carthage 


,Sacket^s  Harboi 


bllevlUe 

! LowvilleV'] 
andy  Cr.ToriL 
l Port  Lejden' 
vulaski  *v 


TORONTO 


New  Have 


nshib* 


^oeheUe 


Ifrl-nton 


St.Catherine* 


^*«*A 3 

LO  NO  islan; 

Samt  Seale  j 


pnovis 


Canajoi 


(uffalo 


iVoniaA*en\ 
( Penn  Ya) 
Keuka / 
'ris  L.\ j/i 

CohoctrfnD/ 


imilton  C|  j 

Cooperstow 
i o Morna,  / 


Norwicl 


Dunkirk 


Wutkins 


A.  Horaejlswillg^ 


rianca 


rellsvUle 


Great  Bend 


Oswayo' 


jdersport  ^/chat 


mticelloj 


TitusvUlle  Sheffiat. 


(eveland 


iporium 


Ridgway 


Renon 


ButlerJ 


Rewisburi 

Sonbuj 


/ tawne r 
Kittanning 

Indiana 


Beaver  F Ut 
\ Be  jvj 


}frffKn 


WE8TERN  PART  OF 

VIRGINIA 

Same  Seale 


New  1 
yberlam 


A Pran»*yV. 

iLtunbctt^néF" 

$S  -PrlScet^n 


Ittsburg 

Bxp.ddoek 


poy\estWn^ 

(VottstoWn 


yLong  Branch 
[Ocean  Grove 


tingtoiH 


N,,  Coatesville 


fCnmden  ‘ Rivaff  IB 

1 GTtuta»st»r  . U I Ba rnfjat 

Wdod^J\ Barnegat  Afl  Inlet 

Sl  \ÅT.uckertOfl^r  £ 


ffirw  .MarKjisvIl 
Manmngton 
v 'FairmonJ 


ir-iti)’ 


SÉSnding 

lnle( 

Atlantic  City 


lariel 


•Unshun 


^St.Mary 
iraburg  p.i 


Clarka^ 

‘ Westoi 


IVER7 

Delaicaft 

Day  1 

ftforu  I 


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\ 

\Jew  Hi 
Gallipolis^i 


izabeth 


Raveiuwood^ , 

Wsant  X 


sGeorge £ 
Fairfax® 


.Laurcl 


‘ort 

>1>!U-C<> 


CHARLESTON 

l Nicholas 


Isbury 


| GoaJbnrg 

raison 


56  ram 


Priny/sTAnng, 


Green' 


Tapfwbaunock, 


Xatun 


Buckinghara 


l,ry*vBié 


Jpchuatto^L- 


^«JvMJedlord 


Farm  vi 


Charles 


irg  Pamplin 


CjirKti; 


Puldsl 


^iooroe  ‘C. Charles 
^^C.Henry 


Dinwiddie 


0 V 

Lunenburg 


:k/Mount 


El  ba 


Chatham 


Hicksfon 


Smit 


Bristol] 


.Gaston 


West 


Longitude 


Greenwich 


mm 


Bradlty  i Engr'»,  £LX. 


• Damascus  O 


(gree 


^ago  u/a 


15®  OCixJlilfvJ 


C Longitude  100  D Wé«t  98  E from  96  F OnnHrtflh  94 


d Gibraltar?'  & 


8 • Morocco  “D 


<8®  Canary  Islands  M— 


x»ru>i 


'tttqvs 


6E“!r?,oN 


N V 3Q 


°I Xx  Yl IV 


“O® 


)S3j3A3‘;^0 


• San  Francisco  § CD  # Peking  £ ■»  Hakodate 


\ 87  Longitude  D West  86  from  E Greenwich  83 


ISLE  ROYALE 


'michipicoten  I. 


,602  ft-  above  Sea 


^^MANITOU  I. 

Keweenaui  Pt 


.CARIBOU  I, 


APOSTLES  IOS. 

BE  AV  E ^ # ^UJTEB  |.  

y^X^^TOCKTON  I, 
'^å/^aceline  i. 

^Xa  Pointe 


Duluth 


i P.t-aux  Baies 


^Qtfovth  Ch 
^e°Rr *S\  r- 


'utternt 


Florenee 
1 


fNITOULIN 


■rantaburg 


^BOIS  BLANC  II 

•t y^ctinae 
he^oygan 


BEAVER/ 


unahawk. 


Ant  i gol 
[errill(  , 


WASHINGTON 


N.MAMTOU  I. 


(jnonie 


Meg»  Lake  aibbanl^j 

L V;U'  -^^Harris  v i 

ftraylirS  n\ 


lurand 


Travelse 

Frankfort\ 


Neillsvifle' 


ianipton 


MerrillJ 


.Alma 


•waunee 


jWaupac! 
Poygan  j 


Depere 

lukauna 


>ctb/e  £ 

Pt.aux  Barques 


JTwo  Hi  vers  ^ 
Manitowoc^  $ 


nstee. 


Thona 


Wautoma0 


Iphilton 


Montell 


'entwatei 


.Sheboygan 


^fond  du  Lj 
WaupunVy-- 


&)  Baraboo 

i?)  Richlafcd  Center<? 

i-l  . .-rOtt.sY»  V, 


f Beaver 
lolnrnbus* 
MpVatei 


jt.Louis, 


' Port 
Washington 


[owal 


.Prairie  duj 
_Nphien  I 


>scobel 


?onom< 


'Mihvaukee 


Grand  Haven} 


Koioas 


iRacine 


Saugatuck 


iArllngton*,.  Moi 


iKenosha 


Beloit] 


Waukegan  Beni 


Freepoi 


[ar  skall 


'anna 


ir  Hapids 


! van  st  on 


f Geneva/Oafc 

Batavia#  N*pc 


[Chicago 

L >1  i i ,,  , 
Island 


[onroév^ 

vS"-Ln£ 


Hudsoi 


[evelanli 


JolieJ 


yoming1 

ialesbu/ 


, Urbana^ 


Fordsvil 


McCoth 


.Ci/cle  ville 


Logahl 

Uelsonr 


castle 


Mariettåi 

-^SkAthens  A 


■ersburg^ 


AV  il  mil 


WftverlNjÉ^<d)&t< 


lilllO 


Aurot 


Georgetowl 


VandaHjA 


Newton, 


Manehesteig 


fnsville 


Irontoiv 


[Måtchell  V 
'-«■Salerfl’ 

Charll^^ 


^rroUtcn^J 

Falmouth 


Augusta’ 


Lhysville  ^Taiyubnrgs 
fcmingsburg  . >Ashmn<l, 
* 0HillsborO  w ‘ | f /] 


Moscoutah 


'Central  i a 


ichester 


■holasville 


lysboro 


loyerport 


[arroilsl 


kUjTganfiel 


itchfiel 


Anna, 


it  V.ecaoni 


CEXTRAL  STATES1 

EASTERN  SECTION 


Madi  ( 


[unfordsvjMe 


Wy  the  ville 


^merset. 


AiHopkinsvilb 


6CALE  OF  MILES 


WilUaVnVuirg 


Longitudt 


West 


np~~  A 

^FUnt  ’ 

PovtTB 

•'eAton 

Jfcyine 

meoL^“  7* 

ckWll  \\  JylciarksviliyG 

< tklton  / r Ja^-' 

: N 'V  7 E' 

3 

Bradley  £ 1‘uhtc*,  Engr A.  T. 


D West  98 


C Longitude  100 


F Greenwich  94 


WINNIPEG. 


Portage  la  Prairie 


Ortat 


Bottineau 


Kolla 


Langdon 


ULF  OF 
MEXICO 


Cando 


Town  er/ 


HUNTEft( 


%***< 
Grand  M»r»' 


.Derilt  Lake 


Yermilion  L.. 


Potten 


Forks 

thwood 


Stevett; 


F land 

WinniLii/oahith 


Washbui 


■fw» 

garborsj^ 


iLeech  L. 


James 


>rjtham 


rn- 

Willianls 
Aport  ' , 


‘rior 


insom, 


radena 


CENTRAL  STATES 


Grand 


'Mournl 


Leolh, 


Aberde 


WESTERN  SECTION 


kTaylor’8 
r- Falls 


or  ^"nreau" 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


itevidéoA'^ 

HutchinsoT 


(FjSnlly  atl 
^ Blunt 1 ^ 
Pt.PierreW  PIe/re 


Hastings 
^ L.PtPin 


LMea-le 


> m Mi  lier 


Marsh! 

kings 


'aribault 


■ss  in  gt  on  Sprs. 
— -r  ‘ 


, Owatxwjna 


ChurbM 
Rush  fot 


St.James 


«■'Wnnebagl 
Blue  Km 

'airmoOnt  yjF: 


Kim  ball 


Plan  ki  hl 


Armoi 


'Mason; 


Spripgview 


Niobrara 


inars/ 


«Nonpareil 


dontice 

Maqu< 


Hyunnis 


iudubon 


3 bntesui 


J Gandy 
( North 

: — ■ v Platte 


Sgbunu 


Kimball 


Grant 


.Grand 


'Beth  an; 


0 Imperiul 


BeaVer 


Hejiiililiran' 


- Lagr»"® 

palmy 


Phillipsburg  Bellliv 


»nnnah 

Joseph 


IGFIELD 


jHannibl 


Franl 


rTShelbi! 

it  Ar  ille 


Solom  on  T 
mj  f*»1*"! 

'Solomon 


iofå}Y  Bowling 


loodland' 


Beloit^ 

Lincoln 


Valt* 
AVamego ( 


Alton 


jtussell 


Burliivgainet 


Council 


Greftt  BJJ 


Animas 


Ha  rt  land  Ark{ 


Buffalo 


ihfleld  ^ 


Springfieh 


larthage 


fr*  Hugoton 


nil 


100  Longitude  D 


9i  Greenwich 


Hiperstiwnf 

Portlai 

/•  / Wl 

'•■«'A 

\Knox<TlV_‘ 

Ohariton  Vlbii\. 

y FaVrf 

N»  Q 

^ i .» 

i-opr 

'i""'  i Harv 

?rd^ 

'Hast ftgs 

Ggif 

vtj  Wilbeij^, 

i-/- 

t**hnA.,,eA 

^r',"v  7\ 

gt»b 

Westi 

di. son  * 

IV'M 

'V/ A ^ 

^fl^St.Yincenr~^~~ 

GSioJc-/ 

i°  l x 

s* 

Warren 

' T "" 

Red  L.f~) 

Paris  5 O 1S“D  ” <D  • Rome  3 *-+—  8 * Lisbon  bJ3 


_Q 


5J  * slBP0>lBH  M- 


•*  wnouaj  xri®  ~ O 


JBraclleu  6 I\iatcs,  Enar’*, 


-Q  New  York 3 


K <■»-  Morocco  t*J0 


«z** 


~j*rwl 


svatfonv. 


SW» 


MOG°^ 


Chellv 


American  Bese'1 


30NVH  3XV.K«' 


*5»«pi3H8 


æ*wh>«4®: 


KAl^ICh 


1*11#**, 


P A C I V I c 


S !»H^uc^3  >« 


rN(\sg.t 

! Ag 

l lg  1 | - 

tal)  5 

\ ss 

/ c 

'[jjK 

«fe 
ff  1 

?jt  a 

24  Is-  1 

*• < § 

MS 

j*  _:  <o 

S v 

C 120  D Longitude  E 100  F West  90  G 80  H from  70 


Greenwich  J 


yintocå 

^*GNi 


C-fareuiell 


l.«<i  & 


iP.Murohison 


Cha*' 


_ p.h'®' 


KjC.Esquimaux 


jfoagM M® 


L.ofthe  Ul 


Jthab . 


i»*  tf>^ 

su»»*© 


.Churchill 


Sf.firoiiw 


eat  _ WAotø 


.EFORDØ 


ra 


AMorf  S Trout  L. 


-*VJaS5 

LiNipigon 


omixiox  dr 

CANADA 


8CALE  OF  MILES 


d>£  \ 

%V  Comparatr 


MinneftV®; 


PENNSYLVANIA 


45,000  SQ.  MILES 


THE  WHOLE  RECTANGLE 
CONTAINS  100,000  SQ.  MILES 


Sonoittf- 


Longitude  90  West 


Jpoqtérda0 

^^puie^ 

f 


trfizal 


Gallego 

Jlnillas^ 


lHemio^|u( 


r^tfres 


Galveston 


C£°«0s“  ■ 

f‘,'B“aenl0. 


iVS-lCTado 


.Sta.  Rosalia 


. • . 


Comparative  Area 


koreto 


AenadiJ 


Auetrul 


45,000  SQ.  MILES 


■?52Sp_ 


^•Sauoilli 


Rtftrida  I 
f S A !» 
[atehualn 


fDurango 


THE  WHOLE  RECTANGLE  CONTAINS 
100,000  9Q.  MILES 


LUI 

Vcn.vlo. 


"ampico 


LAS  TRES 

Marias 


•ozomE'- 


Banderae  B. 

C.Corrientes 


*•  Hecelchs 

CampSch®^ 


Tonial 


V.  \ntonio 


-*.Tecoap»i 


Oaxaca^  ‘^*4 


SCALE  CF  MILE8 


Pinotept 


.vim  -v-iy : 


\america 


8-ltenlt? 


Greenwich  E 


C Longitude  105 


West 


C 120 

D 

110 

E 

A 115 

B 

110 

C 

1 

Br  adle y (}■  Jbates,  Engr'»,  N.  T. 


BARBADOS 


•URAqAO 

V*1' 


Pt.Gallinas, 


)BAGO 


C*rt»| 


San  Carlos 


Ciudad  Bolivar 


kventnri 


Gerenaldoc/o 


Kosa 


Esmeraldm 
f ran  ci*c®^ 


Sao  Pedro  Barcellos 


^^agoari 


,Obido8 


Moura' 


I ‘om  bal 


Lf  Oliverica 
Tabatinga  / 


[iquitos 


Borba 


Sao  Juho 
d©  Arajgut 


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31  Longitude  D E&st 


£ Longitude  12  East  F from  11  Greenwich  G 


ITALY 

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4 


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